TIEMPO a bulletin on global warming and the Third World issue 10 December 1993 published by the International Institute for Environment and Development (London, UK) and the University of East Anglia (Norwich, UK) with support from the Swedish International Development Authority in association with the Stockholm Environment Institute editorial office: TIEMPO, c/o Mick Kelly, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK (email crunorwich@gn.apc.org) ****************************************************** IN THIS ISSUE feature: Small islands seek specific mandate Small island and sustainable development A small island action plan Climate and the mangrove ecosystem conferences: Details of international conferences projects: Networking in Latin America Global change and rangelands news: A Weather Eye on..... World Coast Conference Views from the South Tiempo Resource Service ****************************************************** EDITORIAL There is no doubt that small island developing states are amongst the most vulnerable nations as far as climate change and sea level rise are concerned. To set the scene for a major conference in 1994, Maralyn Ballantyne argues that the United Nations should give special consideration to small island states and low-lying developing nations, a mandate that is lacking to date. We then present results from a recent survey of priority areas for action with regard to the sustainable development of these vulnerable nations. The major conclusions of an action plan developed at a Regional Technical Meeting held in Trinidad and Tobago in preparation for the conference are also summarized. The 1994 meeting, the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States, will be held on Barbados in April-May. The conference will include a review of current socio-economic development trends, an examination of specific vulnerabilities, the definition of necessary actions and policies, and consideration of institutional arrangements at the international level. Ecosystems such as the mangrove are also particularly vulnerable to environmental change. Phan Nguyen Hong discusses the manner in which climate change and sea level rise may affect the valuable mangrove ecosystems of Vietnam and highlights the disrupting role of human activity. Networking is the theme of our final two contributions. Eduardo Sanhueza outlines the aims of the newly-formed Climate Action Network Latin America and Mark Stafford Smith describes plans for collaborative research on global change and rangelands. ****************************************************** SMALL ISLAND STATES SEE SPECIFIC MANDATE Maralyn Ballantyne describes the difficulties the Caribbean is experiencing in convincing the international community of its special needs. Convincing the international community that the Caribbean small island developing countries and the low- lying countries of Belize, Guyana and Surinam are unique and are in need of special consideration is a difficult task. Pleas to this effect have received no ear in the past. The matter has been raised at the United Nations for years. However, the United Nations still has no specific mandate to deal with small island developing countries as such. The Commonwealth Secretariat and the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) have held several meetings on small island developing countries where their precarious position and unique vulnerabilities were vociferously articulated. >From the perspective of Caribbean experts and technocrats the facts are patently clear; the case for special treatment is strong. This was reflected in the deliberations in preparation for the 1994 Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States. The meeting is to be held in Barbados as one of the major outputs of UNCED. Consider this submission of the small twin-island of St Kitts and Nevis at the Small Island Developing States (SIDS) Prepcom -- "We face a situation where up to 30 per cent of national budgets are often absorbed by the need to respond to natural disasters." Placed against the point made by Belgium, speaking on behalf of the European Community, that SIDS benefit from higher levels of overseas development assistance than other developing countries and are privileged to have a large number of expatriates who contribute their knowledge and expertize to the local economies, one quickly realizes the monumental task facing SIDS as they labour to hammer home what to them is an uncontestable position. As pointed out by several SIDS at the Regional Technical Meeting (RTM) held in Trinidad and Tobago in July 1993 and the Prepcom, overseas development assistance levels do not reflect the real situation. SIDS incur higher costs per capita in providing routine services such as safe drinking water and electricity. When Caribbean SIDS convened at the Port-of-Spain RTM, they addressed those characteristics which intensify their vulnerability. They insisted that they are prone to and are greatly affected by natural disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes, droughts and climate variabilities as well as human-induced disasters such as oil spills and the disposal of toxic and other waste in the sea around them. It is the severe and pervasive impact of these occurrences on high proportions of the population and the economy which is a source of great worry to Caribbean people and governments alike. Several Caribbean delegations emphasized the fact that islands are nearly wholly coastal zones and are subject to stress from a number of elements including the heavy concentration of economic activities, settlements and recreational activities in these relatively small areas. It is in this context that they are particularly susceptible to any sea level rise resulting from climate change. It was also pointed out that SIDS tend to suffer significant climate variability over relatively short time periods, creating difficulties for production. One is also witnessing the classification of Caribbean SIDS as high risk entities. In the words of the official substantive report of the RTM, "this classification has led to the unavailability or exorbitant costs of insurance and re-insurance with adverse consequences for investment, production costs, government exposure and infrastructure." Rapidly increasing insurance rates may render much of the Caribbean tourism industry less competitive and in some cases uninsurable. In preparing their action plan at the RTM, Caribbean SIDS, in concert with Atlantic and Mediterranean SIDS, admitted that, while some of the conditions which they experience are common to many developing countries, unlike other developing countries SIDS face these conditions concurrently as well as more intensely making SIDS particularly disadvantaged. This leads to significantly less resilience both economically and ecologically and extreme vulnerability and dependence. The RTM put forward climate change and sea level rise and natural and environmental disaster preparedness among its priority areas, stressing that SIDS are vulnerable to the effects of global warming, particularly sea level rise. Erik Blommestein is co-author of the article Climate change and socio-economic impacts, included in the recent publication Climate Change in the Intra-Americas Sea. The publication looks at the implications of future climate for the ecosystems and socio-economic structure of the marine and coastal regions of the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Bahamas, Bermuda and the north coast of South America. He told this writer that the time was long overdue for the Caribbean countries to evaluate the effect of and response mechanisms to different climate and sea level rise scenarios. By the time there is greater certainty about the magnitude of sea level rise and climate change, these countries would have a greater understanding of the options open to them. The Guiana Coast forms the coastline for Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana and parts of Venezuela and Brazil. Over 90% of the population of Guyana, Surinam and French Guiana live along the Guiana Coast. J. Daniel of the University of Guyana has warned that "long-term plans to counter the consequences of sea level rise on the Guiana Coast are non-existent. Governments have not taken the possible threat of sea level rise seriously and the coastal communities are mostly unaware of the possible danger." The United Nations Environment Programme and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission task team on climate change is in the process of developing mathematical models which are intended to assist policy makers in the evaluation of their decisions on land-use and economic activities within the various climate change scenarios. While some onlookers may feel that the Caribbean has not sufficiently considered sea level rise and climate change within the sustainable development focus of the action plan, one thing is certain -- both the political directorate and the people are acutely aware of possible impacts and are searching for options. To some extent, the recommendations embodied in the action plan formulated at the RTM and presented to the recent New York Prepcom represent a strong effort at forging consensus on how to prepare for future outcomes of climate change and sea level rise. The strong, wide-ranging participation at the RTM, including active non-governmental organizations, augurs well for a democratic and consolidating Caribbean position at the April-May 1994 Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States. The Global Conference will be the first test of the "global partnership" declared at the Earth Summit, by which rich and poor countries agreed to act together to pursue sustainable development. Maralyn Ballantyne is Associate Social Affairs Officer with the ECLAC Subregional Headquarters for the Caribbean. ****************************************************** SMALL ISLANDS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Environmental change, whether the result of present-day variability or future problems such as global warming, presents a serious threat to the sustainable development of vulnerable small island states. The following conclusions regarding priority areas for action with regard to climate change and sea level rise and natural disasters are taken from Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States: With Special Reference to The Atlantic and Caribbean States: An Overview by Mark Griffith and John Ashe. Work on the document was carried out under the aegis and sponsorship of the Centre for Sustainable Development at the University of the West Indies and the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) Secretariat. Climate Change and Sea Level Rise Impacts arising from global issues such as climate change and sea level rise or depletion of the ozone layer will negatively impact on the region's resources and hence will further constrain the already limited development options. Impacts of global issues have in common that the people of the region bear little responsibility on their occurrence, have no management control on their causes, but bear potentially high risks and costs. The increase in flood risk, for example, is larger than average for small islands, while for Small Island Developing States (SIDS) the annualized costs for protection or adoption to sea level rise as percentage of GNP could be as much as 10 to 300 times higher than for continental countries in North America or North and Western Europe. These estimates are based on the analysis contained in Global Climate Change and the Rising Challenge of the Sea, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, March 1992. Current levels of the GDP of the SIDS and support by the international community are unlikely to generate sufficient funds to successfully implement mitigation policies and programmes. The costs do not take into account future losses in tourism earnings arising from climate change impacts and the depletion of the ozone layer emanating from a loss of beaches and a future loss in demand from an increase in malignant skin neoplasms, which could further depress the GDP of SIDS. In order to provide a scientific basis for assessing the potential impacts of climate change, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), in collaboration with the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization and other UN agencies, established task teams to assess the implications of climate change in the nine regions covered by the UNEP Regional Seas Programme. The results for the Atlantic, Caribbean and the Mediterranean are summarized in the box on page 8. One general conclusion which may be drawn from the results is that the impacts associated with climate change are expected to vary from one region to another due to regional peculiarities. Natural Disasters Natural disasters, though not peculiar to SIDS, are a particular problem in these countries because of their pervasiveness. The result is often total devastation of the country's infrastructure, the country's foreign exchange earning capacities and extreme social and economic dislocation. Cape Verde in the Atlantic region, and most of the SIDS of the Caribbean, lies within the Caribbean hurricane belt. These countries are therefore affected from time to time by hurricanes, tropical storms and depressions, and storm surges which cause extensive damage to both the basic social economic infrastructure and to the environment. For example, with respect to the effects of storm surges, the Bahamas is still recovering from the extensive damage to sea wall coastline developments caused by storm surges in October 1991. The islands of New Providence and Elethera where the damage was largely confined were particularly affected. These countries are extremely vulnerable and, as a result, require adequate early warning systems, mitigation and preparedness measures and measures designed to minimize the economic shock associated with disasters. In a recent survey aimed at determining the disaster-proneness of countries in terms of their economic impact it was shown that, of the 25 most disaster-prone countries in the period January 1970 to 1989, 13 were small island developing states. Of the 13 most disaster-prone countries, six are located in the Caribbean: Montserrat, St Lucia, Antigua and Barbuda, St Kitts and Nevis, St Vincent and the Grenadines, and Jamaica. The economic damage caused by the average significant disaster, when expressed as a percentage of 1980 GNP, was 47 per cent for Dominica (which experienced three), 40 per cent for St Lucia (which experienced two), 18 per cent for St Vincent and the Grenadines (which experienced two) and 13 per cent for Jamaica (which experienced four). Though some capability exists in the Caribbean region for disaster response, the present focus seems to be primarily toward hurricane preparedness and response. The capability lies essentially at the national level in the various countries with the CARICOM Caribbean Disaster Response Agency playing a coordinative role. One indirect economic result of the increased storm and hurricane activity is the dramatic increase in hurricane premiums on property. In addition, the vulnerabilities of these countries are being further compounded by the withdrawal of coverage by large international insurance companies under the pretext of the increased frequency of hurricanes and the potential recovery claims. Critical life lines such as electricity facilities are now unable to secure adequate insurance coverage for their facilities. Unlike large countries such as the United States where provisions are made for disaster relief by declaring an area a disaster zone, no such provisions exist in or for SIDS where the impacts are more pervasive. Further information: Information Officer, Centre for Sustainable Development, University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica. Table: CLIMATE IMPACTS ON ISLANDS AND LOW-LYING COASTAL AREAS THE MEDITERRANEAN o increase in land degradation o decline in agricultural production o damage to natural terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems o decline in infrastructure THE WIDER CARIBBEAN o beach erosion o burdensome beach protection and stabilization measures o dislocation of economic structures o shoreline retreat of major deltas o damage to benthic systems o saline intrusion of coastal lagoons, estuaries and salinas THE AFRICAN COAST o accelerated coastal erosion o dislocation of coastal communities o damage to coastal lagoons, coral reefs and mangroves o spatial and temporal changes in rainfall distribution o decreased water resources o reduction in biodiversity o damage to socio-economic activity and infrastructure Table: SMALL ISLAND CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR CONSTRAINTS ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ECOLOGICAL/ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS o small size o narrow range of natural resources o limited and fragile resource base that allows less room for error in its utilization and management o susceptibility to natural environmental events (e.g. hurricanes) o little natural organic biological diversity o distance from continents and external competition fosters species endemism o little overall climate variability but potential for climate upsets o tendency towards ecological instability when isolation is breached o abundance of marine biodiversity and similarly high rates and numbers of species due to environmental change o high rate of biodiversity per square kilometre of land area o almost immediate repercussions on the coastal zone and marine environment from terrestrial events GEOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS o relative isolation and completely circumferential sea frontier and EEZ giving a high ratio of ocean space to land o extensive land/sea interface which increases the fragility of coastal ecosystems and the demand for coastal zone management o no interior hinterland or central terrestrial core area that are essentially distant from the sea; coastal resource planning and management is synonymous with national planning and management o dominance of the sea and its use for shipping makes these countries particularly vulnerable to hazards associated with international shipping and waste disposal o small land mass to ocean space makes islands especially vulnerable to global environmental phenomena such as sea level rise SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS o extreme openness of their economies (external relations of trade, aid technology flows and investment) o more dependent on foreign trade than larger countries and having less influence on the terms in which that trade is carried on o extreme dependence on the external sector (other states, agencies and large transnational corporations) o high dependence on the external sector and openness of their economies o low economic resilience in recovering from shocks o intimate association/relation between economic development and environmental assets o narrow range of skills and specific difficulty in matching local skills with jobs Source: Towle, 1983; Griffith and Inniss, 1992; UN General Assembly, 1993 ****************************************************** A SMALL ISLAND ACTION PLAN An action plan was developed at the Regional Technical Meeting (RTM) for the Atlantic/Caribbean/Mediterranean, held in Trinidad and Tobago in July 1993. At the meeting, specific recommendations were advanced regarding policies and measures necessary if developing states in these regions are to cope adequately with natural and anthropogenic environmental problems. The resulting Action Plan is based on a series of programmatic actions to be taken at the national, regional and international levels in order to ensure the sustainable development of Small Island Developing States (SIDS). The Action Plan recommendations that follow have been extracted from the Substantive Report of the Regional Technical Meeting for the Atlantic/ Caribbean/Mediterranean Preparatory to the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States, under the section Management of environmental problems of Small Island Developing States. Natural and anthropogenic environmental disaster preparedness National policies and measures o Establish and/or support integrated disaster management agencies. o Formulate comprehensive disaster mitigation, preparedness, response mechanisms and develop or strengthen early warning systems. These should take into account the relationship between environmental management and disaster mitigation. o Develop industrial disaster management plans including off-site disaster plans. Local communities, NGOs and the private sector should be included in the development of these plans. o Develop the human resource scientific and technological capability for hazard mapping and data and risk analysis. o Improve the rapid dissemination of information and warning. o Incorporate appropriate elements of the disaster management into the educational curricula at all levels and in relevant professional training programmes. o Establish a National Disaster Emergency Fund for areas where insurance is not available in the commercial insurance market and which embraces joint private and public sector support. o Bearing in mind the needs of the poor, develop and enforce building codes and standards and physical planning support activities such as hazard mapping. o Assess potential sources of human-induced disasters, in order to assist contingency planning on a national and regional basis. o Incorporate awareness and preparedness for emergencies at the local level in national disaster plans. Regional initiatives o Establish and strengthen, where appropriate, regional disaster mitigation and preparedness management agencies, measures and programmes. Such agencies should have a coordinating responsibility for a wide range of disasters including industrial disasters and oil spills. o Establish, or strengthen, as appropriate, mechanisms for the sharing of experience, information, resources and expertize with regard to disaster preparedness, prevention, mitigation and response between SIDS in different regions. o Support the operation of a "National Disaster Emergency Fund" and the enactment of standard building codes. o As part of Agenda 21, and within the framework of the United Nations Disaster Relief Organization, the regions should aim for all major public and private sector entities to have written disaster recovery plans for their operations by the year 2000. o Promote inter-agency collaboration in establishing and utilizing models for disaster management. o Increase access to telecommunication links and satellite facilities for disaster monitoring, assessment and information exchange. o Establish regional mechanisms and communication systems for rapid response to disasters. International initiatives o Support the development of the human resource, scientific and technological capability for hazard mapping and data and risk analysis. o Support SIDS in establishing institutional mechanisms for disaster planning, management and response (short term and long term). o Facilitate the free and rapid exchange of data at the national, regional and global levels for monitoring and diagnosing meteorological, hydrological and oceanographic information. o Facilitate easier access to telecommunications and satellite technology for disaster mitigation, planning, response, and assessment. o Facilitate the development and/or strengthening of early warning systems. o Give support to "National Disaster Emergency Funds" and the further development of building codes and legislation. Climate change, sea level rise and climate variability National policies and measures o Early ratification of the Framework Convention on Climate Change. o Assess the socio-economic implications of the impact of climate change, climate variability and sea level rise on SIDS. o Map areas vulnerable to sea level rise and develop computer based information data bases, covering the results of surveys, assessments and observations. o Formulate comprehensive adjustment and mitigation measures for sea level rise within the framework of integrated coastal area management and the cost of implementation. o Implement systems for systematic and continuous research, assessment and monitoring of the effects of climate change and its impacts. o Participate actively in the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, including work impacting on sea level rise, forecasting of tropical storms/ hurricanes and change in rainfall intensity. o Strengthen human resource capability in fields such as remote sensing and mathematical modelling. o Improve public awareness and understanding of the potential impacts of climate change. Regional initiatives o Create and/or strengthen institutional networks to monitor climate variability, climate change and sea level rise and impacts on SIDS. o Establish cooperation frameworks, training, technology transfer, surveillance of climate change and the sharing of experiences to assist in the preparedness response by countries in response to eventual climate changes. o Intensification of studies on early warning systems for countries to respond to climate change events. o Promote at the international level, specific initiatives to develop climate change and climate variability models in tropical areas. o Develop regional or sub-regional projects, as appropriate, focusing on climate variability and/or climate change with respect to: improved prediction of extreme events, e.g. floods and droughts; and, the effects of El Ni$o/Southern Oscillation on the frequency of hurricanes. International initiatives o Assist SIDS in assessing the impact of potential sea level rise including response, adjustment and adaptation strategies and their financial implications. o Provide improved access to financial resources for the development and implementation of response adaptation strategies recognizing the specific vulnerabilities and disproportionate costs borne by small island developing states. o Support the implementation of systems for systematic and continuous research, assessment and monitoring of the effects of climate change and its impacts. o Support multi-disciplinary research and monitoring programmes to further substantiate the role of the ocean in world climate. o Promote and support the collection and exchange of tidal and other relevant information of SIDS and low-lying coastal developing states in relation to climate change including their participation in the Global Level of Sea Surface (GLOSS) Programme of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission. o Support programmes to monitor the impact on the salt-water/fresh-water interface, including that resulting from sea level rise on the fresh-water resources of SIDS and low-lying coastal developing states. o Facilitate effective precautionary and response strategies to climate change. o Support affected SIDS in the context of international efforts to combat desertification and drought. Further information: Maralyn Ballantyne, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Subregional Headquarters for the Caribbean, PO Box 1113, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. ****************************************************** CLIMATE AND THE MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM Vietnam has over 3000km of coastline along which mangrove forests not only cover a considerable area -- 400,000ha before the war -- but also play a significant role in maintaining ecological health and the social and economic well-being of the many coastal inhabitants. In this article, Professor Phan Nguyen Hong describes the potential impact of climate change on Vietnam's mangrove ecosystem. Professor Hong is Director of the Mangrove Ecosystem Research Centre at Hanoi National Pedagogic University and co-author of Mangroves of Vietnam, recently published by the World Conservation Union, Bangkok. In recent decades, the mangrove forests of Vietnam have been affected by many detrimental changes in extent, composition and actual forest quality. These changes are due to various causes but the principal ones are those resulting from human activities and climate-related impacts. There are four climate-related factors that have direct impacts on the mangrove ecosystem: o air temperature; o frost; o rainfall; and o monsoons and storms. Mangrove species are diverse in equatorial, subequatorial and humid tropical regions where annual temperature is high and temperature amplitude is small. Low temperature reduces the tree size, leaf area index and species composition of the flora as well as the complexity of communities. These characteristics can be clearly seen when comparing the mangrove forests at Tien Yen and Quang Ninh in the north of Vietnam and Vung Tau in the south. At Vung Tau, the numbers of communities and of the species in each community are much larger and the succession is also more complicated than in the north. Frost caused by low temperature damages the mangroves in the north of Vietnam, especially on days with a low tide. On January 17th and 18th in 1961, for example, it was recorded in Quang Ninh that a number of mangrove leaves became dry and died when the temperature fell to below 2 C. Rainfall, as well as temperature, has a significant influence on the distribution and zonation of mangrove species. Regions with low rainfall, such as along the estuaries of the Luy River in Phan Ri, the Cai river in Phan Thiet and the Ba Ngoi in Kkanh Hoa, have flora systems that are poor and scattered with stunted trees. The influence of rainfall can also be seen in two areas of southern Vietnam. The mean annual temperatures at Vung Tau and at Ca Mau are not very different (within 1 C) but the average annual rainfall is 1,357mm in Vung Tau with 124 rainy days and is 2,360mm in Ca Mau with 165 rainy days. The substrate sediment at Ca Mau is thicker, though, so there are five more species than at Vung Tau and the tree size is also larger. The significant influence of rainfall on distribution and species composition is because rainfall regulates salt concentrations in both soil and plants as well as providing a source of freshwater for the mangroves. This is an important factor when propagules begin to take root and also in their season of blooming and fruiting. If, however, high rainfall occurs over a short period and other months of the year are prone to drought, the conditions can be considered unfavourable for the growth and distribution of mangroves. The north-east monsoon has the worst effect on mangrove communities. During the winter months, it brings cold air to the north and to north central Vietnam, thereby causing a sudden decrease in air and water temperatures. These, in turn, seriously affect the growth and composition of mangroves as well as many other tidal creatures. In south Ha Tinh, Quang Binh and Quang Tri, sand carried inland by high-speed north-east monsoons fills up creeks and salt and brackish swamps damaging the mangroves inside the estuaries. In the south of Vietnam, north-east monsoons cause large waves to erode the east coast, destroying many mangrove areas and felling thousands of trees. Many benthos die after being brought on to land together with the mud and sand by the waves and some zooplankton species have to move away. Remote sensing data shows that in just two years, from 1973 to 1975, the Con Loi-Ben Tre area lost 460ha and the Hau river mouth lost 350ha. The Ca Mau peninsula alone lost 9,630ha of coast, accounting for 81% of the extent of Vietnamese coastal erosion. According to the remote sensing data of SOYUZ, between the 28th of April 1992 to the 17th of June 1993, 600ha of mangroves from the Bo De river mouth to past the Rach Goc estuary fell down due to winds. The eroded area has now spread to the tip of the Ca Mau cape. The monsoons also carry sand from the sea, forming a thick layer on the mangrove forest ground near the coast. When this occurred the pneumatophore of Bruquiera and Avicennia could not work so a lot of trees died standing in large patches. The dry, hot south-west monsoon also causes a lot of devastation to the mangrove forests along the brackish water river mouths in north central Vietnam, especially when the tide is low in June to August every year. At these times, the salinity in the unflooded mangrove soil rises to very high levels (40 to 45%). This leads to the death or migration of some species of brackish mollusca and polychaete. Tropical depressions and storms constrain the distribution of mangroves. In the coastal plains of the north, the soil is very rich in alluvia but mangroves only form narrow stretches inside the river mouths because they cannot grow at spots with strong waves and winds. Typhoons occurring in the Yen Hung district -- Quang Ninh, Hai Phong, Thai Binh, Ha Nam and Ninh Binh -- have broken the sea dykes, destroying the naturally growing mangrove forests and those planted by people to protect the dyke. This has also resulted in the devastation of the sheltered nurseries and spawning grounds of many species of sea animals as well as water birds. A storm accompanied by heavy rain can break mangrove branches, cause flowers and fruit to fall off and carries a lot of seedlings into the sea. Storm No. 6 on the 17th of August 1991 washed away more than 70% of the newly-planted seedlings at some communes of Thach Ha district in Ha Tinh province. There are also indirect relationships between climate change and the mangrove ecosystem through changes in sea level. Inundation is only one of the effects. As sea level rises, coastal erosion and the severity of coastal flooding will increase and coastlines will recede unless they are stabilized by dykes or through sand nourishment. Salt water intrusion into ground water, rivers, bays and estuaries will increase. Changes in rainfall patterns and in temperature will modify salinity gradients in estuaries and alter rates of river delta sedimentation. Coastal currents and upwelling patterns are likely to shift geographically and change in intensity. All of these "sea changes" will affect the biodiversity in coastal zones. There are a number of causes for sea level rise in the Vietnamese coastal and riverine areas. Some are active in the present-day while others threaten the future.They include: o the north-east monsoon; o increased riverflow; o local heavy rains; o alluvium accumulation; o human activities; and o the greenhouse effect. North-east monsoons have contributed significantly to sea level rise in Vietnam. The monsoon occurs in the dry season from November to the following April when the tide level is at its highest in the year (October to December). This results in salt water intrusion far inland in many areas, particularly so in the Mekong river delta. According to the documents of the Mekong River Committee, when the wind speed went up to 5ms-1, the water level increased by 10cm. When the wind speed went up to 10ms-1, the water level rise was 20cm. When there was no wind, the water level increase only accounted for 4cm. Meteorological factors also affect sea level. Increased riverflow is a major cause but this usually only occurs in the rainy season and is a short-term effect. Again, on the timescale of days, sea level rises highest in the days with spring tide and storms. Heavy rains may cause localized rises in sea level. If any of these factors change in frequency or severity, a longer-term change in sea level may result. Alluvia, the result of erosion borne from inland by rivers, accumulates partly on the river bed and along the river basin and partly near the river mouth forming small islets. Dyke and embankment construction in mangrove forests and on accretions for shrimp ponds or agricultural production, for example, constrains water distribution. The building of dams for reservoirs and hydrological plants reduces the flow of river water resulting in salt water invasion and subsequent salt intrusion far inland. In Minh Hai, for example, the use of ground water without proper planning has reduced the water amount rapidly. This can lead to landslides in the mangrove areas favouring an even higher rise in sea water. Human activity is likely to prove one of the major long-term influences on sea level, as is the global environmental problem of climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions. Preliminary studies from the General Department of Meteorology and Hydrology show that the sea level may rise by up to 1.5mm a year. The annual tide level data in the years from 1982 to 1992 at Ca Mau and Genh Hao stations show that the average level rise over that period has been 1.5cm. Sea level rise, together with monsoons and storms, accelerates the speed of mangrove coastal erosion. This erosion results in the destruction of many rich and various mangrove forests as they fall into the sea, as has occurred all along the east coast of the Ca Mau cape. Erosion also destroys the shelter of a great many tidal and forest animals as well as the spawning grounds of some fish and shrimp species. Sea level rise facilitates the invasion of mangroves into the mainland, killing other cultivated plants. For example, the land in some coastal areas has been used for one-crop rice or subsidiary crop cultivation in the rainy season but, in the past few years, a large extent has had to have been left fallow due to salt intrusion. This has occurred in Can Gio district, in Ho Chi Minh City and in the Long Phu district. In some other districts, such as Thach Ha, Cam Xuyen of Ha Tinh province and Yen Hung of Quang Ninh province, salt intrusion has destroyed the living places of some field creatures and facilitated the invasion of mangroves into the land. This has changed the properties, the distribution and the succession of some biological communities. Sea level rise has prevented soil accumulation so tidal flats become deeply flooded. This is likely to hinder the development of pioneer mangrove communities like Avicennia alba and Sonneratia alba in the river mouths and accretions because their pneumatophores lying under deep water cannot get the air necessary for the trees. Humans, too, have experienced the impact of sea level rise. In recent years, the level of spring tide in November and December has risen. This has flooded the floors of some low stilt houses in the Ngoc Hien district of Minh Hai province as well as flooding several village paths. In Ba Tau hamlet of the Vien An Dong commune in Ngoc Hien, salt water has submerged and flowed even into the high fields of marrows and beans. Coastal ecosystems, especially mangroves, have rich biodiversity resources but are easily destroyed by both natural and human impacts. There are many environmental factors that affect these ecosystems as a whole, but climate change plays an important role as it not only influences the biodiversity directly but also has indirect impacts through factors such as the environmental hydrology and edaphon. High population growth and unplanned economic activities have significantly damaged the biodiversity resource, thus affecting climate change and sea level rise. This issue has not been given sufficient concern in Vietnam. Studies should be supported and promoted to gain comprehensive data. This will enable us to find solutions for the possible disasters that may result from climate change. ****************************************************** CONFERENCES International Conference on Groundwater: Drought, Pollution & Management Brighton, UK: 01-02-94 to 03-02-94 Co-sponsored by the UK Overseas Development Administration, the conference has been prompted by the increasing concern on the long-term sustainability of groundwater resources. Amongst topics to be discussed is the quantity constraints related to climate change in both developed and developing countries. Details: J Watts, HR Wallingford Ltd., Howbery Park, Wallingford, Oxon OX10 8BA, UK. Climate & Survival in Southern Africa Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe: 21-02-94 to 25-02-94 A conference on the impact of drought and the role of environmental change in shaping the future of the sub-continent. Aims to bring together climatologists, hydrogeologists, environmental scientists with managers of natural resources and environmental policy makers from within the region and overseas. Will provide a forum in which to discuss current understandings, likely impacts and courses of action. Details: Shaun Russell, Environment Advisor (SCTD), British Council, Medlock Street, Manchester M15 4AA, UK. Climate Change & Rice Symposium Laguna, Philippines: 14-03-94 to 18-03-94 Symposium intends to review the broad issues of global climate change and its effects on agriculture as well as summarizing research on the impacts of climate change on rice and rice ecosystems. Papers will cover topics such as: production and emission of trace gases by rice soils; UV-B effects on rice and the rice ecosystem; and, effects of elevated CO2 and temperature on rice and rice ecosystems. Details: Keith T Ingram, Climate Change and Rice Symposium, International Rice Research Institute, PO Box 933, 1099 Manila, Philippines. Fifth Global Warming Science & Policy International Conference & Expo San Francisco, USA: 04-04-94 to 07-04-94 Conference is to include two symposiums: Symposium on Global Warming and Public Health and Symposium on Energy Resources and Their Impact on the Environment. Policy makers, scientists and members of industry intend to assess progress towards Agenda 21 and discuss actions necessary for sustainable development of the global economy. Details: Sinyan Shen, Conference Chair, Global Warming International Center, POB 5275, Woodridge, IL 60517, USA. Global Climate Change: Science, Policy & Mitigation Strategies Phoenix, USA: 05-04-94 to 08-04-94 An international conference covering a wide range of topics related to global climate change. Participants to discuss the current understanding of the science and the adaptive measures necessary to cope with present and future climate change. Details: Conference Organizer, Air & Waste Management Association, POB 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230, USA. Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States Barbados: 25-04-94 to 06-05-94 The Global Conference was called for at the Earth Summit in June 1992. Small islands were designated as an ecologically vulnerable group warrenting special international attention. The conference goal is to put together a strategy for sustainable development specific to small islands based on Agenda 21. Dates not finalized so check if wishing to attend. Details: Barbados Conference Organizer, 2nd Floor, Bretton Hall, 16 Victoria Avenue, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad. International Conference on Monsoon Variability & Prediction Trieste, Italy: 09-05-94 to 13-05-94 Primary objective of the conference will be to understand the variability and predictability of monsoons on timescales from days to decades. Main topics will be: observations of monsoon variability; model simulations of monsoon variability; mechanisms of monsoon variability; short- and medium-range prediction of monsoon activity; and, extended-range predictions. Details: R L Newson, WCRP, World Meteorological Organization, Case Postale 2300, 1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland. International Conference on Tree Rings, Environment & Humanity: Relationships & Processes Tucson, USA: 17-05-94 to 21-05-94 Conference intends to address aspects of the past and future Earth, including its physical, biological and social systems with contributed papers presenting research results, case studies and methodological innovations. Three different dendrochronology-related field trips will be available. Details: International Tree-Ring Conference, Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research, Bldg 58, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA. Global Change & Terrestrial Ecosystems: The First GCTE Science Conference Woods Hole, USA: 23-05-94 to 27-05-94 Intended to be a comprehensive assessment of the IGBP Global Change and Terrestrial Ecosystems (GCTE) Core Project. Conference will examine impacts on terrestrial ecosystems including agriculture, forestry and soils, and feedbacks to the physical climate system. Limited resources are available to assist scientists from developing countries. Details: GCTE Core Project Officer, CSIRO Division, Wildlife & Ecology, POB 84, Lyneham, ACT 2602, Australia. Towards the World Governing of the Environment - IV International Conference Venice, Italy: 02-06-94 to 05-06-94 The conference intends to emphasize the evolution and implementation of the concept of an International Court of the Environment. Discussion will focus on the scientific, technical, administrative and legal questions involved in the global management of the environment. Details: Judge Amedeo Postiglione, ICEF Director, Corte Suprema di Cassazione, Piazza Cavour 1, 00193 Rome, Italy. Global Forum '94 Manchester, UK: 25-06-94 to 03-07-94 Ten-day programme of conferences, exhibitions and seminars with theme of Cities and Sustainable Development Strategies for a Sustainable Future. The forum intends to facilitate the creation of new, and to strengthen existing, working partnerships between intergovernmental bodies, governments and independent sectors. Details: Information Officer, Global Forum '94, PO Box 532, Town Hall, Manchester M60 2LA, UK. International Symposium on the Role of the Cryosphere in Global Change Ohio, USA: 07-08-94 to 12-08-94 Topics for the symposium will include: the role of high latitude processes in global climate models; how ice sheets and glaciers drive and respond to global change; detecting and understanding global change in paleo records and modern observations. Details: Secretary General, International Glaciological Society, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1ER, UK. Contemporary Climatology Brno, Czechoslovakian Republic: 15-08-94 to 20-08-94 Conference is organized by the Commission on Climatology of the International Geographical Union. Programme intends to have a broad coverage of climate variability and climate change, together with regional climate and impacts. Details: Rudolf Brasdil, Department of Geography, Masaryk University, Kotlarska 2, 61137 Brno, Czechoslovakian Republic. Budapest '94 Budapest, Hungary: 20-09-94 to 23-09-94 This is the Second International Symposium and Exhibition on Environmental Contamination in Central and Eastern Europe. Symposium intends to discuss issues related to the identification and evaluation of innovative technologies which can be used to solve environmental problems. Details: Peter Richter, Technical University Budapest/CHAERSE, Dept. of Atomic Physics, Budafoki ut. 8, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary. 1994 Conference on Population & Environment in Arid Regions Amman, Jordan: 23-10-94 to 26-10-94 Conference topics to include: human causes of desertification; environmental problems of living in arid regions; population dynamics in arid regions and, population-management policies for arid regions. Although main focus will be on the Middle East and Africa, papers will be included that are relevant to other arid regions of the world. Details: John Clarke, IUSSP Committee on Population and Environment, 34 rue des Augustins, 4000 Liege, Belgium. ****************************************************** NETWORKING IN LATIN AMERICA Eduardo Sanhueza outlines the objectives and activities of the Climate Action Network in Latin America. As is well known, the Climate Change Convention has recently been negotiated and signed by more than one hundred and fifty countries. Thirty-one governments have already ratified that agreement and an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee is preparing for the First Meeting of the Conference of the Parties, intended to take place in early 1995. Undoubtedly, important progress has been made in preparing to cope with the threat of global warming. However, there is still a long way to go before strong and relevant policies can be implemented. The real bargaining on how the commitments will be met is just starting and all indications are that these new negotiations will again take their time to be completed. The industrial societies of the developed countries are responsible for the bulk of the greenhouse gas emissions, but these emissions affect the living conditions of everyone on earth. Moreover, these emissions are closely associated with a dominant economic system which does not appropriately take into account environmental costs and results in an unsustainable development process characterized by the overconsumption of energy. The industrialized countries know very well that they have the primary responsibility to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and that this process will mean a heavy burden for their economies and will have significant effects on the standards of living and the lifestyles of their populations. But, since climate change has global impacts, all countries, including developing countries as they move down a similar path of economic development, must modify their production and consumption patterns. By signing the Convention, developing countries have accepted the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and have also demanded major additional transfers of resources in order to build global warming concerns into their development strategies. These two conditions are of fundamental importance for developing countries. It is understandable, given recent economic history, that developing nations suspect that most northern-originated schemes increase their poverty. It is, therefore, not difficult to foresee that the Convention's debate is going to be dominated by discussion on financial mechanisms allowing for maximum flexibility for this transfer of resources. Also, that finding a common denominator between the economic interests of both developed and developing countries is not going to be an easy task. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have played an important role in all of these negotiations and discussions. NGOs were consistently invited to express their views during official meetings in the preparatory phase of the Convention. Their participation is now recognized under Article 7 of the Framework Convention on Climate Change. Today, NGOs are actively contributing to the preliminary phase of the First Conference of the Parties and there is no reason for us to consider that there may be a change in this situation. In fact, the tone of the present discussions indicates that it will be essential to increase and improve NGO participation. The negotiating process has stimulated joint work and activities among many NGOs. At a meeting held in Germany in March 1989, NGO representatives from western and central Europe, from the United States and from developing countries decided to establish a Climate Action Network (CAN) of NGOs. The participating NGOs share a common concern for the threat of climate change and a desire to cooperate in the development and implementation of short- and long-term coping strategies. The overall goal of the Climate Action Network (CAN) is to promote government and individual action to limit human-induced climate change to ecologically sustainable levels. In pursuit of this goal, the objectives of the Network are: o to coordinate information exchange on international, regional and national climate policies and issues, both between CAN groups and other interested institutions; o to formulate policy options and position papers on climate-related issues; and o to undertake further collaborative action to promote effective non-governmental organization involvement in efforts to avert the threat of global warming. The Climate Action Network is now organized into seven regional networks, coordinated by several informal information nodes managed by existing NGOs. Regional CAN groups include Climate Network Africa, Climate Network-Europe, CAN Latin America, CAN North America, CAN South Asia, CAN Southeast Asia and CAN UK. The last regional coordination established was the Climate Action Network Latin America (CANLA). This was established at a workshop held during the NGO Forum in Rio de Janeiro. At present, this regional network consists primarily of organizations from Brazil, Chile and Mexico which attended the Climate Convention negotiations in 1991-1992 and are now participating in the preparatory phase of the First Meeting of the Conference of the Parties. The secretariat, served by the Instituto de Ecologia Politica in Chile, now maintains initial contacts with NGOs in the rest of the Latin American countries. CANLA membership is open to all environmental, development and other citizen-based organizations that subscribe to the goals of CAN and are active on climate-related issues. Since its establishment, the main CANLA concern has been to collect and disseminate within the region documentation on existing works on climate change and related issues. In pursuance of these aims, CANLA has produced a first newsletter dedicated to explain, in a simplified and general manner, what the greenhouse effect is, its eventual climatic impact and the negotiating process of the Climate Change Convention. We intend to continue editing this newsletter on a regular basis so as to continue our awareness-raising and education campaign on this issue. We will also inform on the progress of the undergoing implementation process of the Convention offering the opportunity to the grassroots movement to analyse global issues from their perspective. The newsletter will also contain reports on local activities that contribute to global solutions. With similar objectives, CANLA is also working jointly with the Latin American division of Greenpeace editing a survey on the eventual impacts of climate change on the Latin American region. This publication, in addition to being mainly focused on the impacts of climate change in this part of the world, intends to be mostly based on results of research work carried out by members of the scientific community of the region. Our aim with this publication is to offer to governmental authorities, policy makers, journalists and the general public of the Latin America region a source of scientific information on the issue based on sound arguments but expressed in a simplified language. To date, contributions from Latin American governments or regional NGOs to the dominant debate on financial mechanisms in the Framework of the Climate Change Convention process have been very scarce, if at all. There is an urgent need for an in-depth analysis on the implications of these financial mechanisms for the region, and, in turn, to represent our own views in the international debate. As a first initiative to meet these aims, CANLA is organizing, and is in the process of seeking funding, to hold a regional workshop on Joint Implementation so that the pros and cons regarding this particular mechanism can be extensively debated by regional governmental and NGO representatives. Finally, CANLA members are permanently involved in activities to assist in the ratification processes of the Framework Convention on Climate Change in Latin American countries and in the monitoring of implementation processes of the Global Environment Facility's projects in the region. Eduardo Sanhueza coordinates the Protection of the Atmosphere Program as well as coordinating the activities of CANLA through the Instituto de Ecologia Politica. ****************************************************** GLOBAL CHANGE AND THE RANGELANDS Mark Stafford Smith describes plans for new research on global change and the world's rangelands. As one component of its effort to predict the effects of global change on key agricultural production systems, forestry and soils, the Global Change and Terrestrial Ecosystems (GCTE) Core Project of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) is launching a major research programme on global change and rangelands. The emphasis of the work is to predict how the interacting effects of changes in climate, atmospheric composition and land use will impact on pasture and range composition and production, and the consequent effects on livestock production. Preliminary planning for the programme (Task 3.1.3) was carried out at the International Grasslands Congress, held in Palmerston North, New Zealand, in February 1993. A communication network of interested researchers was established, and a workplan for the development of the Task was drafted. The workplan has three major objectives: o to predict the effects of changes in atmospheric composition and climate on vegetation composition and animal productivity in different rangeland ecosystems at the patch and landscape scales; o to predict the effects of biophysically-driven change in rangeland ecosystems on land use practices and production priorities at an enterprise and regional scale; and o to predict the feedback effects of global change in the rangelands on atmospheric composition and climate. The first objective is concerned with understanding the biophysical constraints on rangeland production, and how these will be affected by global change. It includes experimental and modelling studies on the effects of elevated carbon dioxide on plant productivity; on changes in the composition of rangelands due to interacting change in climate, fire and grazing; and on the direct and indirect impacts on animal productivity. The second objective aims to understand how the biophysical changes predicted under Objective 1 will alter potential enterprise or subsistence returns in different rangelands systems, and how this may lead to change in management practices. It aims, in collaboration with the IGBP-HDP project on Land Use/Cover Change, to develop regional land-use models that are sensitive to both biophysically-driven changes in productivity and to market- or policy-driven pressures. Long-term changes to rangelands productivity may have important feedback effects to further change in climate and atmospheric composition. Under Objective 3, the effects of changes in rangelands composition and productivity on albedo, roughness and evapotranspiration, as well as on fluxes and pools of carbon and other elements, will be studied. A feature of the GCTE Rangelands Task is its inclusion of the complete range of systems, from hot, dry (e.g. the Sahel) to cool, moist (upland pastures in mountainous regions) and from ranching-style commercial production to subsistence-dominated systems. Indeed, a feature of the programme is the emphasis on the nature of the socio-economic system under which rangeland management is carried out in determining the responses to global change. The next step in the development of the Task is an implementation workshop, to be held in mid-1994. The objectives of the workshop are to finalize the Task's workplan, to identify a set of contributing projects to the Task, and to enhance interaction and communication among the contributors to the network. Further information: GCTE Core Office, CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology, PO Box 83, Lyneham ACT 2602, Australia. ****************************************************** A WEATHER EYE ON..... Reflecting on progress since the signing of the Climate Convention, Weather Eye detects little evidence that any clear direction is emerging from the international community. ABOUT FACE... With original plans for an energy tax weakened by compromise, the Clinton Administration is now facing criticism over its 50-point programme to return carbon emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000, the target suggested for the industrialized nations under the Climate Convention. Critics argue that the programme relies on voluntary measures rather than setting enforceable standards. There was some hope that the programme might set mandatory standards for fuel efficiency, cutting traffic pollution which is the main source of carbon dioxide in the United States. Instead, the programme relies on tax incentives to encourage employers to subsidize their workers' use of public transport. Congressional deals to firm up support for the North American Free Trade Agreement have also threatened US commitment to restrict methyl bromide use in the latest round of the Ozone Protocol negotiations. While agreeing to cut emissions by a quarter by the year 2000, President Bill Clinton has also assured congressmen that there will be no restrictions before that year in order to protect the Arkansas methyl bromide industry. Is compromise a step forward in comparison to the previous administration's incalcitrant position on environmental matters? IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS... Meanwhile, the European Union is having difficulties in reaching agreement on joint ratification of the Climate Convention. Britain, following its opposition to a carbon or energy tax, is now opposing plans to share the emission reduction burden equitably across Europe. The proposal, which would allow poorer nations to meet a less rigorous target than the rich, would still result in the stabilization of total emissions Union-wide by the year 2000. But Britain does not want to go beyond its stated target of the stabilization of national emissions by the end of the century. Equity would suggest that a more ambitious UK target is needed. At the same time, the President of the European Commission has advanced an extensive plan for economic growth which relies on increased energy consumption and road-building. This looks set to make stabilization that much more difficult a goal. GOING NOWHERE... 1993 ended with the Global Environment Facility (GEF) facing serious problems over its future. An independent committee, whose report was commissioned by the participating countries, has concluded that the GEF lacks a rational strategy and is suffering from inadequate leadership. The committee has called for control of the fund to be taken away from the World Bank and for its activities to be put on hold in the interim. The report cites the lack of agreement among industrial and developing countries on the raison d'tre, objectives and strategies of the GEF as one of its main failings. This divergence was transparently obvious during talks on the future of the GEF in Colombia in December. Negotiations broke down completely over the allocation of seats on the new 30-member Executive Council. The donors wanted 14 seats for themselves, 14 for the developing nations and two for Eastern Europe. The developing countries held out for 18 seats, arguing that the majority of GEF projects are being implemented in their nations. COASTAL CATS... The World Coast Conference in Noordwijk in November 1993 was undoubtedly a successful event (see page 24). But a few ironies did not go unnoticed. Some participants became rather bored with being lectured on the advantages of building with nature by a nation that has battled nature on the coastline for centuries. Their attention was distracted by the view of the sea out of the venue's windows, over sand dunes that had been flattened to improve the prospect. Not one of the best examples of sustainable coastal management for delegates to take home with them, was the comment of one participant. The centrepiece of the fourth day of the meeting was a computer program demonstrating the benefits of coastal management in the imaginary country of Catopia. (CAT -- Concepts and Tools of coastal management). Delegates were impressed by the program as an educational tool, though felt its capabilities as a decision-making tool were limited. They were not so impressed by the fact that the program was available for a small price on a case by case basis. It was at times like this that the fine dividing line between formal conference and trade fair became indistinct. There were a large number of consulting firms present, many of which were newly-privatized branches of Dutch ministries. Though a global meeting, no other countries were asked to take part in the trade fair. AND FINALLY... We couldn't resist sharing the news that the intellectual might of the electronics firm Toshiba has recently come up with a patent application for a food trolley controller which saves diners the trouble of passing food dishes from one side of the table to the other. Each diner would wear an electrode which monitors brain wave patterns. A neural network computer detects when one of the diners becomes irritated and presumably hungry. It then signals the trolley to move toward that diner making the food readily accessible. The relevance to climate change? Presumably the computer could be programmed to control over-consumption, heading off over the horizon when it considers sufficient calories have been ingested. ****************************************************** WORLD COAST CONFERENCE An international conference on coastal zone management was held in Noordwijk, The Netherlands, from the 1st to the 5th of November 1993. Participation at the World Coast Conference included delegates from more than 90 nations, 20 international organizations and 23 non-governmental organizations. The conference was organized as part of a continuing process intended to fulfill recommendations contained in Agenda 21 which expressed the urgent need for coastal states to develop capabilities for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) and to implement national ICZM programmes. The aim of ICZM is to balance conflicting goals for the use of coastal resources in order to ensure the sustainable development of coastal zones. It is considered the most appropriate means of addressing both current and long-term coastal management issues. Discussion at the meeting focused on the actions that are necessary for coastal states to undertake in preparing appropriate coastal zone management strategies. The conference statement recognized that these actions also needed to encompass strategies that dealt with the likely impacts of climate change. This reiterated the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change call for "coastal states to develop programmes for coastal zone management to address the impacts of global climate change." The conference delegates acknowledged that there are a number of obstacles and constraints, found at both national and local levels, that have hindered the effective development of many national programmes. These include: o fragmented institutional arrangements; o competing interests and lack of priorities; o inadequate legislation and/or lack of enforcement; o land-tenure regimes and other social factors; o limited understanding of, and experience in, integrated coastal zone management; o limited understanding of coastal and marine resources, processes and opportunities; o single-sector oriented bureaucracies; and o lack of information and resources (funds, trained personnel, relevant technologies, equipment, etc). Many delegates pointed out, though, that in overcoming such problems it was necessary to take into account the unique characteristics that applied to each coastal nation. In the words of one delegate, echoed by many, "what works, for example, for The Netherlands isn't necessarily going to work for the Maldives or Nicaragua." Comprehensive assessment studies and planning and management strategies need to fully assess not only the local marine and terrestrial ecosystem characteristics and their particular vulnerabilities but also the socio- economic needs and desires of the resident communities and the nation as a whole. In recognition of this, the conference statement noted that "a national ICZM programme should facilitate integrated decision making through a continuous and evolutionary process for cooperation and coordination among sectors, integrating national and local interests in the management of activities concerning the environment and development. These programmes include coordination of activities throughout the coastal zone, taking into account, where appropriate, river basins, ecosystems or entire islands. Coordination is also required within and among national programmes, regional organizations and international institutions." For developing coastal nations, any fully integrated coastal zone management programme must include measures that deal with critical short-term problems as well as strengthening long-term capabilities. Compounding the difficulties facing these nations is the severe lack of adequate technology and the financial means to implement integrated protection schemes. Regional and international support for programmes to assist developing coastal nations has increased over recent years but still proves to be inadequate and, in some cases, inappropriate. The conference urged funding institutions to "assist coastal states, in particular developing countries, in the formulation and implementation of ICZM strategies and programmes that take fully into account the existing environmental, scientific, technical, social, political, cultural and economic context of individual nations and that enhance socio-economic objectives directed toward the achievement of sustainable development." Many delegates pointed out that there was a need for stronger, more binding, international mandates that emphasized agreements dealing with climate change impacts together with sustainable development. It is intended that the conference statement and report will contribute to the work of the Preparatory Committee for the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States which is preparing for the conference to be held in Barbados in April-May 1994 (see page 1). The conference statement and report will also contribute to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Further information: Information Officer, Coastal Zone Management Centre, National Institute for Coastal and Marine Management, PO Box 20907, 2500 EX The Hague, The Netherlands. ****************************************************** VIEWS FROM THE SOUTH In 1992, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) invited the views of southern NGOs on what would constitute the ideal "global environmental facility." The report, The Southern Green Fund, is now available and provides a much-needed grassroots perspective on ways forward in financing, implementing and controlling environmental assistance. The project's goal was to identify "how a user-designed -- as opposed to donor-designed -- Green Fund could be used to address critical environmental problems in developing countries with a strong emphasis on grassroots control and participation." WWF felt that it was time to provide a channel through which southern views on the Global Environment Facility and what it should be were made available to a wide audience. The project was based on four regions, Africa, Latin America, South Asia and Southeast Asia. WWF-India also provided a national report. A total of 120 southern NGOs were involved in the process. The areas for discussion included funding priorities, accountability mechanisms, administrative structures, donor relations and criteria for selection of project executants. The final publication contains a Consolidated Report which lists fundamental issues, conclusions and recommendations alongside the regional reports and the national report for India. The participants concluded that, whatever the instrument set in place to deal with global environmental problems, it must be characterized by transparency, democratic participation, accountability, equitable representation of the South at all decision making levels, minimizing the role and control of the North, decentralizing the local decision making processes from the state structure and the incorporation of NGOs at all decision making levels. Further information: Conservation Policy Division, WWF International, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, CH 1196 Gland, Switzerland. ***************************************************** TIEMPO RESOURCE SERVICE The Tiempo Resource Service has recently published a 56-page briefing document "Global Warming and Vietnam", in collaboration with the Centre for Environment Research Education and Development in Hanoi. Copies of the document in English can be obtained by writing to the Editorial Office. Copies in Vietnamese will be available shortly. The briefing document is free to low-income subscribers. Others are requested to contribute a donation of 5 sterling or a comparable publication which will be forwarded to a Third World institute. ****************************************************** CONTACT ADDRESSES Maralyn Ballantyne, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Subregional Headquarters for the Caribbean, PO Box 1113, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. Phan Nguyen Hong, Director, Mangrove Ecosystem Research Centre, Hanoi National Pedagogic University, 91 Nguyen Khuyen Street, Hanoi, Vietnam. Eduardo Sanhueza, Climate Action Network Latin America, Seminario 776, Santiago, Chile. Mark Stafford Smith, CSIRO National Rangelands Program, PO Box 2111, Alice Springs, NT 0871, Australia. ******************************************************