1 <ONLINE MODERN HISTORY REVIEW> March 1993
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5 Marijan Salopek
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9 Historians and Electronic Publishing
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12 Advances in telecommunications and electronic publishing
13 technology are creating new opportunities for the dissemination
14 and processing of great quantities of information. The
15 availability of so much material in an electronic format poses a
16 considerable problem for historians who for the first time in
17 their professional careers are having to consider the
18 implications of working with records stored in an electronic
19 form. Computer specialists, archivists and librarians are
20 already delving into the subject, but historians, for the most
21 part, are unaware of the nature or direction of the discussion on
22 electronic publishing.+1+ Many within the profession are
23 familiar with computers and use them on a daily basis to write
24 papers, books, etc., but that has been the extent of their
25 relationship with the technology. Articles in journals like
26 <History and Computing> impart insights into the application of
27 computers for statistical analysis; the article by Angelique
28 Janssens entitled 'Managing Longitudinal Historical Data: An
29 Example from Nineteenth Century Dutch Population Registers' is
30 typical of the work being done.+2+ However, despite the value of
31 such studies, the broader questions relating to the exploitation
32 of non-statistical information stored in an electronic format or
33 the publication of scholarly research in an electronic medium are
34 not being examined. I start this discussion on the note that
35 electronic publishing will alter the way in which all historians
36 undertake and present their research and my intent is to point
37 out the general positive and negative aspects of this
38 development. I encourage discussion and I look forward to a
39 lively and open debate on the issues raised by this paper.
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42 The first issue which historians need to address is the cost
43 implications of electronic publishing. The technology offers
44 cost savings to archives and libraries, and the most significant
45 savings will come in the form of smaller and fewer facilities for
46 the storage of documents and files. A typical compact optical
47 disk (CD) can contain the equivalent of one hundred average-sized
48 books. The financial advantages of storing records and documents
49 in an electronic format are certainly known to governments,
50 librarians and record managers who are struggling to meet budget
51 restrictions while trying to preserve the collections/records in
52 their care. Faced with the option of storing the equivalent of
53 one hundred books on three metres of shelves or in a container
54 less than one centimetre in width, many people would and are
55 choosing the latter. Information stored in an electronic format
56 offers another advantage which comes in the form of portability.
57 What was once a drain on resources can be easily transformed into
58 a revenue generating commodity. Governments and other
59 institutions are already realizing revenue by renting out
60 information stored in an electronic format to private profit-
61 oriented corporations with a stake in the dissemination of
62 information. These information vendors control vast quantities
63 of statistical and non-statistical information, and the
64 implications of such a development must not escape the
65 attention of historians.
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67 Traditionally, we have had relatively easy and free access to
68 archival material. In many cases all that was needed to gain
69 entry to an archive was a letter of introduction from a respected
70 colleague or the government official responsible for the records.
71 Such unfettered and free access will soon be a thing of the past.
72 Generally, the major expenses historians have incurred to further
73 their research were travel and accommodation related. Now we
74 face the prospect of having to pay 'by the minute' for the
75 information we require. Anyone who has done archival search will
76 admit that the work is laborious and time consuming and often
77 hundreds of cartons are examined with few positive leads;
78 retrieving information from profit oriented archives or <Online
79 Information Vendors> will have a devastating impact on scholarly
80 research. For this reason alone, historians need to have an
81 input into the decisions relating to the storage, and sale of
82 records in an electronic format.
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85 We also have to give some thought to how we access material
86 stored in an electronic form.+3+ So much information can be
87 crammed onto the typical tape or magnetic disk that it is
88 impossible to know what information is accessible. Obviously,
89 we need to focus our attention on the creation of comprehensive
90 indices. While the technology of the moment facilitates keyword
91 searches, it offers few clues as to the true contents of an
92 electronic database. Future historians will be denied the luxury
93 of leafing through a book or file, and the possibility exists
94 that valuable information will remain hidden because the
95 technology or indices do not facilitate its discovery.
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98 Furthermore, information stored in an electronic medium, by its
99 very nature, defies the historical methods which historians have
100 applied over the years. The historians of the twentieth century
101 are increasingly aware of the difficulties. In short, historians
102 need to contemplate methods for the analysis of non-statistical
103 information stored in an electronic format. Such information is
104 so easily modified, altered or destroyed: Policy- and decision-
105 makers with the touch of a few keys on a keyboard can erase notes
106 and drafts which can provide valuable insights into the working
107 of the writer's mind or the machinations of governments.
108 Furthermore, the data can be manipulated by record managers,
109 archivists and others with read and write access to the original
110 tapes or disks.
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113 The events of the recent Iran-Contra Affair should have given
114 historians reason to pause and consider the implications of the
115 storage and transmission of information in an electronic format.
116 While, the destruction of paper documents was highly publicized,
117 the deletion of computer files was poorly reported. In fact the
118 latter act is of greater significance since computers are
119 extensively used for a variety of purposes in many government
120 offices. A user with the appropriate access can delete or corrupt
121 not only one file, but entire databases without leaving a record
122 of the act. The question before us is: 'Does the writer, the
123 publisher or the record keeper have final responsibility for the
124 preservation of electronic data? Every user of computers is
125 aware of the importance of maintaining backups, but the
126 inclination to destroy files which consume disk space is
127 overpowering. Anyone faced with the dilemma of having to go to
128 the local stationer's shop or office supply depot to purchase
129 extra disks, or deleting old material on a disk which has not
130 been used in some time, appreciates how easy it is to delete
131 information. In addition the simple matter of labelling disks is
132 something which few in government or private life approach in a
133 consistent manner. The possibility of lost information is so
134 great that historians face an uphill battle in this regard.
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137 While the publication of material in an electronic format gives
138 rise to unique problems, such as those described above,
139 electronic publishing nevertheless provides great opportunities
140 for academic and non-academic writers and readers alike. The
141 writer is transformed into a publisher and ideas can be
142 disseminated cheaply and to a large audience across the globe.
143 No longer is the writer bound by the logistical restraints of
144 publishing. The writer and reader can interact in a manner
145 impossible in the past; no longer is either confined by space or
146 time. As soon as the material is in the public domain, readers
147 can address the strengths and weaknesses of the work. The
148 readers of 'true' online electronic journals like the <Online
149 Modern History Review> can present to a broad community the notes
150 they otherwise would only make in the margins of their personal
151 copies. This modern form of marginalia will undoubtedly generate
152 discussion and debate which can only benefit writers and readers
153 alike. For the first time, readers will be able to gauge the
154 thoughts and views of other readers --specialist and non-
155 specialist, and be in a position to offer their own insights and
156 reservations.
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159 The profession can not but benefit from this development.
160 Electronic publishing forces historians to consider the needs of
161 a much broader audience. As historians have specialized, the
162 reading audience has grown considerably smaller, and in many
163 instances the only readers of specialized, parochial and esoteric
164 books and articles are the very people who were asked to review
165 the works.+4+ As the competition for recognition and academic
166 standing increases, current scholarly publishing hardly satisfies
167 the needs of the scholar knocking at the doors of academe or the
168 established scholar who seeks to disseminate a novel and
169 unpopular/contradictory interpretation. Electronic publishing
170 provides avenues for research and expression which will advance
171 the position of independent, unaffiliated scholars -- 'public
172 intellectuals'.+5+
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175 Networks like Internet are the backbone of electronic publishing
176 and it is imperative that historians fully exploit this valuable
177 resource. The amount of information currently available to
178 anyone with access to a computer and Internet is mindboggling.
179 Sitting in the comfort of my study I can peruse the catalogues of
180 the Library of Congress, the British Library, the Cambridge
181 University Library and other great and not-so great university
182 libraries through the world. I can participate in the Dante
183 Project (Divine Comedy and Reviews); read H. G. Wells' short
184 stories; retrieve information on the latest research in
185 Genetics; search a Law library for the latest laws on a specific
186 subject; or read the latest judgments of the U.S. Supreme Court.
187 If I am technically inclined, I can retrieve shareware and public
188 domain software from an archive in Finland or Australia which I
189 can later employ to facilitate my research. I might want to
190 search the Bible, the Koran, the Book of Mormon, etc. In short I
191 have the resources of past and present civilizations at my
192 fingertips.+6+
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195 The technology does have its limits and at the moment the most
196 serious limitation of 'true' online books and journals is the
197 presentation of graphic images alongside the text. The terminal
198 displays used on networks like Internet are for the most part
199 text-based and bereft of special character and multiple fonts
200 capabilities. However, this limitation is surmountable as
201 graphics can be attached as separate files in either a GIF, PCX,
202 GEM or TIFF format+7+ and can be viewed on most PC-DOS (IBM or
203 compatible) or Macintosh computers using the appropriate
204 software. Users of electronic data can incorporate the ASCII
205 text and graphic into virtually every word-processing package.+8+
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208 In fine, electronic publishing technology, despite its
209 limitations, has created windows of opportunity for historians
210 who seek to reach a larger audience. Electronic publishing is
211 democratic if access is not limited either by the technology or
212 the cost of exploiting government or private databanks. Our task
213 as historians is to master the technology, to discover its
214 strengths so as to gain some control over the flow of information
215 which is accumulating daily. To some it might seem that the
216 wave of information is uncontrollable, but, personally, I am
217 optimistic. The key, in my mind, is to see the technology for
218 what it is -- a vehicle for the expression of ideas -- and it is
219 our responsibility as the keepers of the past to ensure that
220 those ideas are accessible and available to future generations
221 who seek to know where our civilization has been.
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227
228 <ENDNOTES>
229
230
231
232 +1+Consult: Michael B. Spring, <Electronic printing and
233 publishing: the document processing revolution> (New York: M.
234 Dekker, 1991); Tony Feldman, ed., <Electronic publishing
235 perspectives : present and future> (London: Blueprint; New York,
236 NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990); Amy Lucas and Kathleen J.
237 Edgar, <Information systems and services> (Detroit, Mich.: Gale
238 Research Co., 1990); <Electronic publishing : the new way to
239 communicate : proceedings of the Symposium on Electronic
240 Publishing, 5-7 November 1986, Luxembourg> (London: Kogan Page,
241 1987); Ahmed H. Helal and Joachim W. Weiss, <New trends in
242 electronic publishing and electronic libraries: Essen Symposium,
243 29 August-31 August 1983> (Essen: Gesamthochschulbibliothek
244 Essen, 1984); John Gurnsey, <Electronic publishing trends in
245 the United States and Europe> (Oxford; Medford, N.J.: Learned
246 Information, 1982);
247
248
249 +2+<History and Computing,> 3, no. 3 (1991): 161-174. For
250 similar studies see: Lars Nygaard, 'Name Standardization in
251 Record Linking: An Improved Algorithmic Strategy,' <History and
252 Computing,> 4, no. 2 (1992): 63-74; John B. Friedmann, 'Cluster
253 Analysis and the Manuscript Chronology of William du Stiphel, a
254 Fourteenth Century Scribe at Durham,' <History and Computing,>
255 4, no. 2 (1992): 75-97; Ulrike Albrecht, 'Factory Tables as a
256 Source for a Databank on the Economic and Social History of
257 Flensburg in the 18th and 19th Centuries,' <History and
258 Computing,> 3, no. 1 (1991): 36-44. At the other extreme are
259 the studies on how to use the commercial software packages.
260 Some of the most recent works are: Donald Spaeth, 'Stonyroyd: a
261 Computer-Based Learning Package for Historians,' <History and
262 Computing,> 3, no. 1 (1991): 55-59; Sarah Davnall, 'Bibliographic
263 Software for PC's,' <History and Computing,> 4, no. 2 (1992):
264 139-141; John Wilkes, 'Disk Utilities Software: PC Tools and
265 Norton Utilities,' <History and Computing,> 4, no. 2 (1992):
266 142-144.
267
268
269 +3+<Informing the nation : federal information dissemination
270 in an electronic age> (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Congress, Office
271 of Technology Assessment, 1988).
272
273
274 +4+Readers are encouraged to read Russell Jacoby's
275 provocative work on the state of modern academe. Russell Jacoby,
276 <The Last Intellectuals: American Culture in the Age of Academe>
277 (New York: The Noonday Press, 1987).
278
279
280 +5+'Writers and thinkers who address a general and educated
281 audience'. See Ibid., p. 5.
282
283
284 +6+<Directory of electronic journals, newsletters and
285 academic discussion lists [computer file]> (Washington, D.C.:
286 Association of Research Libraries, Office of Scientific and
287 Academic Publishing, 1991).
288
289
290 +7+Common graphic formats. For a discussion of the latest
291 graphic technology consult: Marcus, Araon, <Graphic design for
292 electronic documents and user interfaces> (New York, N.Y.: ACM
293 Press; Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1992).
294
295
296 +8+Wordperfect, Geowrite, Microsoft Word, Microsoft Works,
297 Wordstar, Macwrite, PFS Write, Ami Pro, etc.
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310 <BIBLIOGRAPHY>
311
312
313 Reference Material, Government Documents and Periodicals:
314 --------------------------------------------------------
315
316
317 <Chicago guide to preparing electronic manuscripts for authors
318 and publishers.> Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
319 1987.
320
321
322 <Directory of electronic journals, newsletters and academic
323 discussion lists [computer file].> Washington, D.C.:
324 Association of Research Libraries, Office of Scientific
325 and Academic Publishing, 1991.
326
327
328 <Electronic publishing: the new way to communicate; proceedings
329 of the Symposium on Electronic Publishing, 5-7 November
330 1986, Luxembourg.> London: Kogan Page, 1987.
331
332 <History & computing.>
333
334
335 <Informing the nation : federal information dissemination in an
336 electronic age.> Washington, D.C.: U.S. Congress,
337 Office of Technology Assessment, 1988.
338
339
340 Kehoe, Brendan P. <Zen and the Art of the Internet: A Beginner's
341 Guide to the Internet.> Chester, PA: Brendan P. Kehoe,
342 1992.
343
344
345
346 Secondary Sources:
347 -----------------
348
349
350 Aaron, Marcus. <Graphic design for electronic documents and user
351 interfaces.> New York, N.Y.: ACM Press; Reading,
352 Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1992.
353
354
355 Albrecht, Ulrike. 'Factory Tables as a Source for a Databank on
356 the Economic and Social History of Flensburg in the
357 18th and 19th Centuries.' <History and Computing,> 3,
358 no.1. (1991): 36-44.
359
360
361 Davnall, Sarah. 'Bibliographic Software for PC's.' <History and
362 Computing,> 4, no.2. (1992): 139-141.
363
364
365 Denley, Peter and Deian Hopkin. <History and computing.>
366 Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987.
367
368
369 Feldman, Tony. Ed. <Electronic publishing perspectives : present
370 and future.> London: Blueprint; New York, NY: Van
371 Nostrand Reinhold, 1990.
372
373
374 Folgelvik, Stefan and Harvey, Charles. <History and computing
375 II.> Manchester, [England]; New York: Manchester
376 University Press, 1989.
377
378
379 Friedmann, John B. 'Cluster Analysis and the Manuscript
380 Chronology of William du Stiphel, a Fourteenth Century
381 Scribe at Durham.' <History and Computing,> 4, no.2.
382 (1992): 75-97.
383
384
385 Gurnsey, John. <Electronic publishing trends in the United
386 States and Europe.> Oxford; Medford, N.J.: Learned
387 Information, 1982.
388
389
390 Helal, Ahmed H. and Weiss, Joachim W. <New trends in electronic
391 publishing and electronic libraries: Essen Symposium,
392 29 August-31 August 1983.> Essen: Gesamt-
393 hochschulbibliothek Essen, 1984.
394
395
396 Jacoby, Russell. <The Last Intellectuals: American Culture in
397 the Age of Academe.> New York: The Noonday Press,
398 1987.
399
400
401 Jannssens, Angelique. 'Managing Longitudinal Historical Data: An
402 Example from Nineteenth Century Dutch Population
403 Registers.' <History and Computing,> 3, no.3. (1991):
404 161-174.
405
406
407 Kist, Joost, <Electronic Publishing: Looking for a Blueprint.>
408 London; New York; Sydney: Croom Helm, 1987
409
410
411 Lucas, Amy, and Edgar, Kathleen J. <Information systems and
412 services.> Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research Co., 1990.
413
414
415 Mawdsley, Evan, Ed. <History and computing III: historians,
416 computers, and data: applications in research and
417 teaching.> Manchester [England]; New York: Manchester
418 University Press, 1990.
419
420
421 Nygaard, Lars 'Name Standardization in Record Linking: An
422 Improved Algorithmic Strategy.' <History and
423 Computing,> 4, no.2. (1992): 63-74.
424
425
426 Spaeth, Donald. 'Stonyroyd: a Computer-Based Learning Package
427 for Historians.' <History and Computing,> 3, no.1.
428 (1991): 55-59.
429
430
431 Spring, Michael B. <Electronic printing and publishing : the
432 document processing revolution.> New York: M. Dekker,
433 1991.
434
435
436 Wilkes, John. 'Disk Utilities Software: PC Tools and Norton
437 Utilities.' <History and Computing> 4, no.2. (1992):
438 142-144.
439
440
441 <ONLINE MODERN HISTORY REVIEW> ISSN 1181-1151