From aceska@victoria.tc.ca Fri May 14 15:07:51 2004 From: aceska@victoria.tc.ca (Adolf Ceska) Date: Fri, 14 May 2004 07:07:51 -0700 Subject: [BEN-L]BEN # 329 Message-ID: <002801c439bc$d97d5100$744606cf@HPLAPTOP001> BBBBB EEEEEE NN N ISSN 1188-603X BB B EE NNN N BBBBB EEEEE NN N N BOTANICAL BB B EE NN NN ELECTRONIC BBBBB EEEEEE NN N NEWS No. 329 May 14, 2003 aceska@victoria.tc.ca Victoria, B.C. ----------------------------------------------------------- Dr. A. Ceska, P.O.Box 8546, Victoria, B.C. Canada V8W 3S2 ----------------------------------------------------------- NATURAL FIRE REGIMES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA AND THE SUMMER OF 2003 From: John Parminter [John.Parminter@gems7.gov.bc.ca] The terrestrial ecosystems of British Columbia experience a variety of natural disturbances which may or may not form pat- terns in time, space and effects. The parameters of frequency, size and intensity define the regime of each disturbance agent - which are generally wildfire, wind, insects, diseases, mass movements (landslides and snow avalanches), flooding and silta- tion as well as snow and ice deposition. On a provincial basis, wildfire is the most pervasive distur- bance agent. Since 1912, when records were first collected by the B.C. Forest Service, about 180 000 known wildfires have burned over 11 million hectares of forest and grassland out of total areas of 54 million and 300 000 ha, respectively. We know the most about wildfires because we have been fighting them since 1905, have kept fairly accurate statistics since 1912, and maps of burned areas since 1919. Historically, British Columbia's forest fires have ranged from small spots resulting from a single lightning strike or man-caused ignition to fires of 200 000 hectares or more. The latter usually result from multiple lightning ignitions, erratic and strong winds, and nearly continuous fuel availability. One fire, which began in June, 1950 near Fort St. John, eventually burned 1.4 million ha over a four-month period, extending into northwestern Alberta. Of the 20 largest wildfires known to have occurred within British Columbia since 1919, nine burned exclusively in the Boreal White and Black Spruce biogeoclimatic zone and five burned primarily there but also into the zone above it, the Spruce - Willow - Birch. These 14 fires account for 1 280 700 hectares of the estimated total of 1 556 300 hectares repre- sented by the top 20 wildfires for the province (or 83% of that area). The largest fire on record occurred in 1958 and covered 285 900 hectares, mostly in the Boreal White and Black Spruce biogeoclimatic zone. Other large fires, ranging in size from 35 800 to 68 700 hectares, occurred in the Montane Spruce, Interior Cedar - Hemlock, Engelmann Spruce - Subalpine Fir and Interior Douglas-fir biogeoclimatic zones, almost exclusively in the early 1930s. For further information about the biogeoclimatic zones, see http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hre/becweb/ An animation of the known fire history can be viewed on the Pacific Forestry Centre (Canadian Forest Service) website: http://www.pfc.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/fires/disturbance/top_ten_e.html Field studies of fire history have also shown that fire has influenced most of our grasslands and forest types. The fire history of a particular area is related to a number of environ- mental factors such as climate (general and drought periodicity), aspect (warm versus cool slope), elevation (re- lated to microclimate and lightning incidence), topography (fire behaviour and burn area patterns), fuel types (fire intensity and rate of spread), and ignition probability (lightning and man). Fire researchers seek to understand the long-term natural role of wildfires, which are categorized by type and their effects on the ecosystem. Surface fires, which burn primarily in the under- storey of forests, are most common in the Ponderosa Pine and Interior Douglas-fir biogeoclimatic zones. These fires were historically frequent and consumed the woody fuels, thinned out the smaller trees and rejuvenated many of the herbs and shrubs. Crown fires, which burn through the tree canopy and are usually linked to a surface fire, are the most dramatic kind of forest fire, and can be fast-moving and difficult or impossible to control under extreme fire weather conditions. They are common in most biogeoclimatic zones but rarer in the ponderosa pine and interior Douglas-fir forests. There are variations on these two main themes, with surface fires also occurring in lodgepole pine forests of the Interior Douglas-fir and Sub-Boreal Pine - Spruce biogeoclimatic zones. Mixed fire regimes, involving both surface and crown fires, appear to be a function of combinations of slope, aspect, forest cover, fuel loadings and how those factors influence fire be- haviour. They have yet to be well- described and likely occur primarily in the Coastal Douglas-fir, Ponderosa Pine, Interior Douglas-fir, Montane Spruce, Interior Cedar - Hemlock, Sub- Boreal Pine Spruce and Sub-Boreal Spruce biogeoclimatic zones. Most surface fire regimes are "stand maintaining" as they main- tain a particular combination of species composition and stand structure. In the absence of frequent stand maintaining fires the ecosystem will change - typically trees encroach onto grasslands and open ponderosa pine and interior Douglas-fir forests become denser, especially in the understorey and mid- canopy. Crown fire regimes are stand replacing disturbances. They usually initiate secondary succession to establish another vegetative community on the site, probably very similar to the one which burned (especially true for lodgepole pine and black spruce forests). Based on current knowledge, fire return intervals show tremen- dous variation through the province. In very dry, interior ecosystems, the average return cycle can be as short as 4-5 years and in very wet coastal forests, over 500 years or more. Fire sizes are also variable but show some patterns by biogeoclimatic zone. For sites most commonly affected by fire, a summary of fire frequency and size data follow. FIRE RETURN INTERVAL BY BIOGEOCLIMATIC ZONE (years) Zone(*) Min Avg Max BG 4-5 5-15 15-25 PP 4-5 5-15 15-25 surface fires (understorey) rare rare rare crown fires (overstorey) SBS 75-100 100-150 150-250 BWBS Sb 50-75 75-125 125-175 At Pl Sw 75-100 100-150 150-250 Pl Sw Bl 100-150 150-200 200-300 SBPS 100-125 125-175 175-250 ICH 100-150 150-250 250-350 IDF 5-10 10-20 20-50 surface fires (understorey) 100-150 150-250 250-350 surface and crown CDF 50-100 100-300 300-400 MS 125-175 175-275 275-350 CWH 100-150 150-350 350-500 ESSF 150-200 200-300 350-500 SWB 150-200 200-350 350-500 AT 250 300-400 500-600 MH 300 350-450 550-650 Tree abbreviations for the BWBS zone data: At Trembling aspen Bl Subalpine fir Pl Lodgepole pine Sb Black spruce Sw White spruce FIRE SIZE BY BIOGEOCLIMATIC ZONE (ha) Zone (*) Min Avg Max AT .1-5 5-50 50-150 BG .1-5 5-50 50-150 PP .1-5 5-50 50-150 surface fires (understorey) .1-5 5 5-50 crown fires (overstorey) CDF .1-5 5-50 150-500 MH .1-5 50-150 150-500 CWH .1-5 50-500 > 500 SBPS .1-5 50-500 > 1000 IDF .1-5 5-50 50 surface fires (understorey) .1-5 50-500 > 5000 surface and crown MS .1-5 50-500 > 5000 ESSF .1-5 50-500 10,000 SBS .1-5 50-500 15,000 ICH .1-5 150-500 > 25,000 SWB .1-5 150-2,000 > 5,000 BWBS .1-5 3000-10,000 200,000 (*) Zones: AT: Alpine Tundra, BG: Bunchgrass, BWBS: Boreal White and Black Spruce, CDF: Coastal Douglas-fir, CWH: Coastal Western Hemlock, ESSF: Englemann Spruce - Subalpine Fir, ICH: Inte- rior Cedar - Hemlock, IDF: Interior Douglas-fir, MH: Mountain Hemlock, MS: Montane Spruce, PP: Ponderosa Pine, SBPS: Sub- Boreal Pine - Spruce, SBS: Sub-Boreal Spruce, SWB: Spruce - Willow - Birch. This is meant to show the spectrum of fire regimes in a general way. It is based on available literature for British Columbia and related ecosystems in the Pacific Northwest states. Some sites will be primarily affected by disturbances other than fire (e.g. windthrow and landslides) so these figures are for fireprone sites, intended to reflect conditions over the past 2000 years and for natural wildfires only, with no persistent human influence. The summer of 2003 brought some serious wildfires to the southern interior of British Columbia. While the fire season was not especially notable for the total area burned or the number of wildfires, they exhibited extreme behaviour not previously seen by people with 30 or more years of firefighting experience. Some wildfires also entered communities and destroyed many homes. How does the last summer's weather compare? A 450-year precipitation record reconstructed by Emma Watson of Western University, based on tree rings collected near Kamloops, indi- cated that an average of 300 mm of total precipitation falls between August of one year and July of the next. However, from August 2002 to July 2003, Kamloops received only 240 mm of precipitation therefore only 21 of the previous 450 intervals were drier. The result was very easy ignition, rapid rates of spread (aided by strong winds) and considerable consumption of the forest floor and decayed Coarse Woody Debris. An inspection of several of the 2003 wildfires revealed that grasses and shrubs such as willows and birch are resprouting, trembling aspen are suckering, and Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine seed has dispersed on some of the burned areas. Knowledge of the natural fire regimes has been incorporated into resource management documents such as the Biodiversity Guidebook and the Landscape Unit Planning Guide and used to define seral stage distribution, harvest block and leave area patch size and landscape patterns. Regional plans, such as the Kootenay - Boundary Land Use Plan, contain landscape level targets for restoring grasslands and open ponderosa pine and interior Douglas-fir forests which have suffered from encroachment and ingrowth due to decades of fire exclusion. Maintenance of these restored ecosystems will be accomplished by a cycle of prescribed burning based on the historic fire cycle (which included lightningcaused fires and aboriginal prescribed burning). Further information on natural disturbances in British Columbia and related ecosystems can be found in these recent sources: Agee, J.K. 1993. _Fire ecology of Pacific Northwest forests_. Island Press, Washington, D.C. 493 p. Arno, S.F. & D.H. Davis. 1980. Fire history of western redcedar/hemlock forests in northern Idaho. Pp. 21-26 in: _Proceedings of the Fire History Workshop, October 20-24, 1980. Tucson, Arizona_. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM-81. Fort Collins, Colorado. Arsenault, A. 1995. _Pattern and process in old-growth temperate rainforests of southern British Columbia_. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Van- couver, B.C. xvii + 187 p. Barrett, S.W., S.F. Arno & C.H. Key. 1991. Fire regimes of western larch - lodgepole pine forests in Glacier National Park, Montana. _Canadian Journal of Forest Research_ 21: 1711-1720. Brown, K.J. & R.J. Hebda. 1998. Long-term fire incidence in coastal forests of British Columbia. _Northwest Science_ 72:64-66. http://www.pfc.forestry.ca/ecology/chrono/sfrw/index_e.html Daigle, P. 1996. _Fire in the dry interior forests of British Columbia_. Extension Note 8, Research Branch, Ministry of Forests, Victoria, B.C. 5 p. http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/En/En08.htm Douglas, K.L. 2001. _Historical analysis of fire intervals of two biogeoclimatic units in the central Chilcotin, British Columbia_. B.Sc. Thesis, University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George, B.C. viii + 49 p. Francis, S.R. et al. 2002. _Characterising fire regimes in sub- boreal landscapes: fire history research in SBPS and SBS biogeoclimatic zones of Cariboo Forest Region_. Prepared for Lignum Ltd., Williams Lake, B.C. by Applied Ecosystem Manage- ment, Whitehorse, Yukon. http://www.lignum.com/publications-research_papers.asp Gavin, D., L.B. Brubaker & K.P. Lertzman. 2003. Holocene fire history of a coastal temperate rain forest based on soil charcoal radiocarbon dates. _Ecology_ 84:186-201. http://www.life.uiuc.edu/hu/gavin/gavin_ecology03.pdf Gavin, D.G. 2000. _Holocene fire history of a coastal temperate rain forest, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada_. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. viii + 132 p. http://cgrg.geog.uvic.ca/abstracts/GavinHoloceneThe.html Gray, R. and E. Riccius. 1999. _Historical fire regime for the Pothole Creek interior Douglas-fir research site_. Working Paper 38, Research Branch, Ministry of Forests, Victoria, B.C. 15 p. http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Wp/wp38.htm Hallett, D.J., D.S. Lepofsky, R.W. Mathewes & K.P. Lertzman. 2003. 11 000 years of fire history and climate in the moun- tain hemlock rain forests of southwestern British Columbia based on sedimentary charcoal. _Canadian Journal of Forest Research_ 33: 292-312. http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/cgi-bin/rp/rp2_abst_e?cjfr_x02-177_33_ns_nf_cjfr2 -03 Hawkes, B.C., W. Vasbinder & C. DeLong. 1997. _Retrospective fire study: fire regimes in the SBSvk and ESSFwk2/wc3 biogeoclimatic units of northeastern British Columbia_. McGregor Model Forest Association, Prince George, B.C. 35 p. http://www.mcgregor.bc.ca/forestResearch/ecological/fireStudy.html Iverson, K.E., R.W. Gray, B.A. Blackwell, C.M. Wong and K.L. MacKenzie. 2002. _Past fire regimes in the interior Douglas- fir, dry cool subzone, Fraser variant (IDFdk3)_. Report to Lignum Ltd. 84 p., Appendices. http://www.lignum.com/publications-research_papers.asp Lertzman, K., D. Gavin, D. Hallett, L. Brubaker, D. Lepofsky and R. Mathewes. 2002. Long-term fire regime estimated from soil charcoal in coastal temperate rainforests. _Conservation Ecology_ 6: 5. http://www.consecol.org/vol6/iss2/art5/main.html Masters, A.M. 1990. Changes in forest fire frequency in Kootenay National Park, Canadian Rockies. _Canadian Journal of Botany_ 68: 1763-1767. Riccius, E.H. 1998. _Scale issues in the fire history of a fine grained landscape_. MRM thesis. Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C. viii + 78 p. Rogeau, M.-P. 2001. _Fire history study: Mackenzie TSA, British Columbia_. Prepared for Abitibi Consolidated Ltd., Mackenzie, B.C. xv + 162 p. Steventon, J.D. 1997. _Historic disturbance rates for interior biogeoclimatic subzones of the Prince Rupert Forest Region_. Prince Rupert Forest Region, Ministry of Forests, Smithers, B.C. Extension Note 26. 5 p. http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/rni/Research/Extension_notes/Extension_Notes.htm Wong, C.M. 1999. _Memories of natural disturbances in ponderosa pine - Douglas-fir age structure, southwestern British Columbia_. MRM thesis. Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C. x + 97 p. http://www.rem.sfu.ca/pdf/cmwong.pdf SEXUAL ESCAPE AFTER FIRES From: T. Vr†lstad, Department of Biology, University of Oslo, Norway [trudevr@ulrik.uio.no] A forest fire is an ecological disturbance that suddenly and brutally can change a vital forest to a smoking heap of coal and ash. For most organisms such an event is often lethal, at least for those living above-ground. But for others, new possibilities emerge. Not many weeks pass before an unusual fungal life awakens - that is at least what we observe. Post fire sites commonly host a broad range of fungi that are never observed anywhere else, and are therefore referred as post fire fungi. They are also called phoenicoid fungi - after the mythical bird Phoenix arising from ashes. Other nicknames are carbonicolous fungi (fungi dependant on coal) and pyrophilous fungi (fungi that love fire). The majority of post-fire fungi are found within the ascomycete order Pezizales (cup-fungi). A number of myths are connected to the post fire fungi, and the theories for why they only fruit on burnt ground have been many and varied. Some have assumed that the fungal spores are dormant in those periods between fires, and that the spores are dependent on the heat stimuli to grow and fruit. Other theories assume that these fungi are dependant on coal and ash to fulfill their life cycle, that they are tolerant to the chemical products released by the burning, that they appear due to the reduced competition from other organisms, or that they simply are adapted to the special conditions that arise after fires, such as high pH and reduced moisture holding capacity of the substrate. While all these theories may be true for some of the post fire species, few of them give complete answers to a vital question: Where are the post fire fungi hiding and living in the period between fires? One of most prominent and common post fire fungi in northern boreal parts of the world is the ascomycete _Geopyxis car- bonaria_ (Alb. & Schw.: Fr.) Sacc. (for a picture see http://www.biologi.uio.no/bot/ascomycetes/Taxa/geopyxis.html). Just a few weeks after a forest fire the first fruit bodies of this species appear, and after another few weeks the burnt forest floor is covered by orange cup-shaped fruit bodies (1-4 cm in diameter). After a forest fire in Oslo (Norway) in 1992, we observed as many as 1000 fruit bodies per square meter on the burnt spruce forest floor the following year. The theories listed above poorly explain the mass occurrence of _Geopyxis carbonaria_ after boreal forest fires, since _G. carbonaria_ spores are not tolerant to heat, and do no not need any heat or pH stimuli to grow. Another aspect is that the spores can prob- ably not survive in the humid and biologically active boreal forest soils for several decades between each fire event. Until recently, mycologists tended to focus on fungal fruit bodies, which are easily observable by eye. But the fruit bodies are only the sexual stage in a fungal life cycle. The vegetative stage is the dominant stage, commonly belowground, more dif- ficult to observe and recognize, and rarely noticed. However, understanding the ecology and behavior of the post-fire fungi requires knowledge of their vegetative life in the periods between fires. After the forest fire in Oslo, we observed a mass-occurrence of _Geopyxis carbonaria_ in the burnt spruce forest, but no fruit bodies were seen on surrounding burnt clear cut sites although several other species of post fire fungi were fruiting there. This strongly indicates that _G. carbonaria_ is closely as- sociated to the spruce trees in the pre-fire community. We started therefore to search below ground on the spruce roots. Aided by molecular techniques we were able to show that mycelium genetically identical to _G. carbonaria_ was repeatedly isolated from ectomycorrhizal roots of the spruce trees at depths below detrimental heat penetration. Based on these findings we proposed a new hypothesis for the life cycle of this fungus: Fungal spores of _G. carbonaria_ are probably not dormant in the soils in the long lasting periods between forest fires. They neither require coal nor ash to grow and fruit. Instead we believe that _G. carbonaria_ lives in a vegetative, asexual life as ectomycorrhizal (root symbiotic) partner with the roots of spruce trees (and probably with a few more coniferous species) in the periods between forest fires. Two fungal strains isolated from ectomycorrhiza on _Picea abies_ (L.) Karst. were shown to have ITS sequence genotypes identical to that of _G. carbonaria_, supporting the hypothesis that _G. carbonaria_ forms ectomycorrhizal associations with coniferous trees. In pure culture (in vitro) _G. carbonaria_ also produces an anamor- phic (asexual) stage very similar to _Dicyma ampullifera_ Boulanger. It is therefore likely that the fungus always is present in the rhizosphere as an ectomycorrhizal partner that can reproduce and spread asexually anytime (independent of fires) by the asexual spore-producing Dicyma-like anamorph. Biologists generally agree that sexual reproduction is the most important event in an organism's life. Fungi, however, have several options for genetic recombination and spatial dispersal belowground, where sex is not necessarily important. The main part of the fungal life cycle is the vegetative mycelial stage below ground or within the tissue of a host organism. But changes and stress are factors that can induce fungal sexual reproduction. Ectomycorrhizal fungi live in close symbiosis with tree roots. In this symbiosis the fungi provide the plants with water, minerals and micronutrients through their expanding mycelial networks in the soil, and receive in return photosynthetic products (carbohydrates) from the plants. During a forest fire, fungi associated with roots at depths below detrimental heat penetration (like _G. carbonaria_) will not be eliminated by the fire directly, but will starve when the host tree dies and the carbon transfer terminates as a result of the fire. Fungi unable to grow alone would be expected to die in this situation. But some ectomycorrhizal fungi have the potential to grow, at least for a short period, independent from their host. This is also the case for _G. carbonaria_. A fire is probably a tremendous stress situation for mycorrhizal fungi where the food resources (carbon transfer from the host trees) disappear. The only alternative to death is dispersal, which for a fungus most effectively is done through sexual reproduction, followed by spore dispersal. The fire in Oslo in 1992 induced an amazing mass occurrence of the sexual stage (fruit bodies) of _G. carbonaria_, possibly reflecting a mas- sive, specialized and successful fungal escape from a dying partner. The billions of spores shot out from the fruit bodies and dispersed through the air presents the opportunity to re- enter a vegetative, symbiotic stage as ectomycorrhizal partners with roots of living trees until a new forest fire provokes the next sexual escape. Basis reference for this note: Vr†lstad T, Holst-Jensen A & Schumacher T. 1998. The postfire discomycete Geopyxis carbonaria (Ascomycota) is a biotrophic root associate with Norway spruce (Picea abies) in nature. _Molecular Ecology_ 7: 609-616. Previous literature on post-fire fungi and ecology: El-Abyad, M.S.H. & J. Webster. 1968. Studies on pyrophilous discomycetes. 1. Comparative physiological studies. _Transac- tions of the British Mycological Society_ 51: 353-367. El-Abyad, M.S.H. & J. Webster. 1968. Studies on pyrophilous discomycetes. 2. Competition. _Transactions of the British Mycological Society_ 51: 369- 375. Keeley, S.C. & M. Pizzorno. 1986. Charred wood stimulated ger- mination of two fire-following herbs of the California chaparral and the role of hemicellulose. _American Journal of Botany_ 73: 1289-1297. Petersen, P.M. 1970. Danish fireplace fungi, an ecological investigation of fungi on burns. _Dansk Botanisk Arkiv_ 27: 6-97. Turnau, K. 1984. Post-fire cup-fungi of Turbacz and Stare Wier- chy Mountains in the Gorce Range (Polish Western Carpathians). _Prace Botaniczne_ 12: 147-170. Warcup, H.J. & K.F. Baker. 1963. Occurrence of dormant as- cospores in soil. _Nature_ 197: 1317-1318. Wicklow, D.T. & B.J. Hirschfield. 1979. Competitive hierarchy in post-fire ascomycetes. _Mycologia_ 71: 47-54. Wicklow, D.T. & J.C. Zak. 1979. Ascospore germination of car- bonicolous ascomycetes in fungistatic soils: an ecological interpretation. _Mycologia_ 71: 238-242. Widden, P. & D. Parkinson. 1975. The effects of a forest fire on soil microfungi. _Soil Biology and Biochemistry_ 7, 125-138. Zak, J.C. & D.T. Wicklow. 1978. Response of carbonicolous as- comycetes to aerated steam temperatures and treatment inter- vals. _Canadian Journal of Botany_ 56: 2313-2318. Some recent studies on the topic: Bruns, T., J. Tan, M. Bidartondo, T. Szaro, & D. Redecker. 2002. Survival of _Suillus pungens_ and _Amanita francheti_ ec- tomycorrhizal genets was rare or absent after a standreplac- ing wildfire. _New Phytologist_ 155: 517- 523. Chen, D.M. & J.W.G. Cairney. 2002. Investigation of the in- fluence of prescribed burning on ITS profiles of ectomycor- rhizal and other soil fungi at three Australian sclerophyll forest sites. _Mycological Research_ 106: 532-540. Dahlberg, A. 2002. Effects of fire on ectomycorrhizal fungi in Fennoscandian boreal forests. _Silva Fennica_ 36: 69-80. Dahlberg, A., J. Schimmel, A.F.S. Taylor, & H. Johannesson. 2001. Post-fire legacy of ectomycorrhizal fungal communities in the Swedish boreal forest in relation to fire severity and logging intensity. _Biological Conservation_ 100: 151-161. Grogan, P., J. Baar, & T.D. Bruns. 2000. Below- ground ec- tomycorrhizal community structure in a recently burned bishop pine forest. _Journal of Ecology_ 88: 1051-1062. FIRE-FUNGI IN THE COLUMBIA RIVER GORGE, SPRING 2004 From: Maggie Rogers [Rogersmm@aol.com] A summer 2003 fire had scorched roadsides and forest in the west end of the Columbia River Gorge east of Cascade Locks, on the Oregon side. The woods, usually green and lush, had been dry with summer drought. A falling power pole started the fire. Because of the Gorge winds, it was mostly a fast, hot fire. After highway closure for more than a day for firefighting, the ground lay black and ashy through the winter, the conifer and deciduous tree trunks char-blackened. .sp In April we went what fungi might be there. The previous spring, there'd been a car- peting of tiny pale apricotcolored cups littering the ashy remains of a 2002 fire near the summit of the Cascades east of Salem. Wearing our prescribed hard hats against the assumed danger of falling dead branches, we walked among huge now-bare boulders, the former mittens and scarves of mosspads reduced to fine black wiry tendrils. Moving into the winter-moistened area, we scanned the Douglas-fir needle duff. Sallie Jones had checked earlier: "Millions of little pale cups!" The little cups (_Geopyxis_ sp.) were indeed a fantastic litter- ing of warm color. Later, over her microscope and chemicals, Judy Roger would identify the _Peziza proteana_ Boud., a _Plicaria_ sp., and several "_little orange critters that feast on charcoal_." The trunks of the great Douglas- firs, _Pseudotsuga menziesii_, were charred black at their bases. Touching the char, I was surprised at the fragile softness of it: living fir bark is not soft. Looking up, I could see that some of the firs were still living, usually the oldest. Bare, blackened branches laced the sky. But on the ground, light brown needles carpeted everything. These had not died instantly. And they were creating a soft, absorbent ground cover. Moving along, we saw sizable disc-shaped fungi, probably the _Peziza proteana_, most a nearblack color, but many of the young ones pale lavender to a deep mauve-black. Some grew singly; others seemed to need company. Fewer of these than of the _Geopyxis_, and harder to see against the dark soil. One group of these actually fruited inside a charred pocket of a stump, on almost no substrate. Sallie chirped, "Morel!" and we adjusted to take in more than cups and dishes. In an hour, just a scant six or seven burn morels, most very young. One bug-chewed larger pale one looked more like a "natural," but close to it grew a very young one with different coloring. Darker. The sword ferns (_Polystichum munitum_) had not survived well; their blackened crowns spotted the area like large cones, held to the ground by their seared root masses. A few showed green curled fronds, but only where the fire, not so hot at these areas, had rushed quickly along. Then I saw it. A brown and tan mushroom, patterned rather like a honey mushroom, _Armillaria mellea_ Vahl (Quel.). Perhaps six inches across, its stipe maybe four inches from the ground. But the season was wrong for honey mushrooms. I reached down to touch it. Robust, firm, its stipe was thicker and more solid than expected. I picked it, and examined the surface beneath the cap. Not gills, but oval pores of pale creamy white, perfect patterning. I'd never seen one of these before. Then at the base of a large, fire-blackened maple, an older one, its cap beginning to deteriorate around the edges. And next to it, a younger one. We gathered to examine them. Was it an _Albatrellus_ sp.? That was the closest we could come. But it was fruiting _in the wrong season_. Not until I came to yet another did I think to dig down further beneath the stipe. First, two or three rootlike struc- tures, fleshy. And more of something beneath! I began digging downward and found a larger harder mass. _And there was the clue: a sclerotium!_ Was it a Tuckahoe, _Poria cocos_ (Schw.) Wolf? We found a few more, still assuming them more like _Albatrellus_ than anything else. Eventually,we'd spotted a total of nearly a dozen of these. Only one of us ever having seen them before; Judy Roger, remembered finding one several years ago near Gladstone, Oregon, in a Willamette River park Eventually we came up with _Polyporus tuberaster_ (Pers.:Fr.) Fr., pictured in Arora's _Mushrooms Demystified_, color photo #151. So the ques- tion arose: are they a fungus that fruits only occasionally? Are they there every year, but hidden by lush green ground-cover plants? Or perhaps more important, _was it the fire that caused them to fruit?_ Later, in a newsletter article by David Rose, I read that C.G. Lloyd, the cranky curmudgeon of mycology, had clearly described the differences between the Tuckahoe and the _Polyporus tuberaster_. The Tuckahoe's sclerotium is quite like a potato in texture, and is considered edible by some. But no one could consume any part of of the _P. tuberaster_ sclerotium, a rigid, heavy, mass of dense mycelium threads throughout soil, rocks and other inclusions. The herbarium at Oregon State University, Corvallis reported their only specimens of _Polyporus tuberaster_, four of them, had been found in Douglas County, Oregon, far to the south of the Columbia River Gorge. Had they appeared after a burn? We don't know - yet. POST-FIRE FUNGI: SUTTLE LAKE FORAY, OREGON - MAY 16-18, 2003 .br From: Ian Gibson [ig@islandnet.com] The Pacific Northwest Key Council, a group of mycologists dedi- cated to the creation and publication of field keys to the fungi of the Pacific Northwest, met for their 2003 spring foray at Suttle Lake, Oregon, May 16 to 18, 2003. Two fires occurred in this area in 2002: Cache Mountain Fire (July 23- August1, 2003; 3,894 acres; lightning), and Eyerly Fire (July 9-26, 2002; 23,573 acres; lightning). This is the Suttle Lake list with some questionables left out. The post-fire fungi (burned ground or burned wood is mentioned in descriptions from the literature): _Clitocybe sinopica_ (Fr.) Kummer _Coprinus_ cf. _lagopus_ (Fr.) Fr. _Cryptoporus volvatus_ (Peck) Shear _Geopyxis carbonaria_ (Alb. & Schw.:Fr.) Sacc. _Morchella_ spp. _Myxomphalia maura_ (Fr.) Hora _Pachylepyrium_ sp. _Peziza proteana_ (Boud.) Seaver _Peziza violacea_ Pers. ? _Pholiota brunnescens_ A.H. Sm. & Hesler _Pholiota carbonaria_ A.H. Sm. _Plicaria endocarpoides_ (Berk.) Rifai _Pulvinula_ sp. _Tricharina_ sp. _Trichophaea hemisphaerioides_ (Mont.) Graddon Other fungi seen on this foray: _Agrocybe praecox_ (Fr.) Fayod _Amanita "aprica"_ _Amanita pantherina_ (DC:Fr.) Krombh. _Caloscypha fulgens_ (Pers.) Boud. _Cantharocybe gruberi_ (A.H. Sm.) Bigelow & A.H. Sm. _Chromosera cyanophylla_ (Fr.) Redhead, Ammirati, & Norvell _Clitocybe albirhiza_ Bigelow & A.H. Sm. _Clitocybe gibba_ (Fr.) Kummer _Clitocybe glacialis_ Redhead, Ammirati, Norvell, & Seidl _Clitocybe squamulosa_ (Fr.) Kummer _Coprinus_ cf. _plicatilis_ (Fr.) Fr. _Gautieria monticola_ (Harkn.) Harkn. _Geopora cooperi_ Harkn. _Hygrophorus purpurascens_ (Fr.) Fr. _Hypholoma capnoides_ (Fr.) Kummer ex Fr. _Hypholoma fasciculare_ (Huds. ex Fr.) Kummer _Lycophyllum decastes_ (Fr.) Singer group _Melanoleuca_ sp. _Nolanea holoconiota_ Largent & Thiers _Omphalina ericetorum_ (Fr.) Lange _Pluteus petasatus_ (Fr.) Gillet _Ramaria rasilispora_ Marr & Stuntz var. rasilispora _Rhizopogon_ sp. _Sarcosphaera coronaria_ (Jacq. ex Cooke) Boud. _Sphaerobolus stellatus_ (Tode) Pers. _Trametes versicolor_ (L.: Fr.) Pilat _Tricholoma sejunctum_ (Fr.) Quel. _Tricholoma terreum_ (Schaeffer: Fr.) Kummer group _Tricholoma vernaticum_ Shanks SOUTH AFRICA - PEATLANDS ON FIRE From: Piet-Louis Grundling [peatland@mweb.co.za] originally published in International Mire Conservation Group Newslet- ter, 2004/1: 21 in March 2004 see also http:// www.imcg.net [posted in BEN with permission] Southern Africa is at present experiencing one of the worst droughts in 40 years. Some areas, such as Pretoria in the inte- rior of South Africa have received less than 20 % of its mean annual summer rainfall. The region is in general a dry area with rainfall varying from 1200 - 1500 mm per annum in the east to less than 200 mm per annum in the west. The drought has resulted in huge pressures on already water stressed catchments and associated mires. Especially in areas where groundwater resources are exploited peatlands are in peril. The karst peatlands in the western part of South Africa (refer to article in _IMCG Newsletter_ issue 2001/2, June 2001) are hit particularly hard. One of these peatlands, Bodibe, is currently one fire. The area is located in the midst of a rural community and the inhabitants are suffering from a overdose of acrid peat fire smoke, a fire hazard, and a lack of grazing and water of livestock. The fire has lead to the loss of at least two cattle and one man has sustained severe burns when trapped in the burning peat. Deep desiccation fissures along which the fire spreads also poses a health and safety risk. Peat fires are part of the eco- system dynamics of the Okavango Delta in Botswana further towards the northwest. Ash layers within the peatland indicate that also in this part of the country fire is not an isolated incident. The peat fire was probably started when the peatland vegetation was deliberately burned to stimulate new growth for grazing. The Working for Wetlands Programme has been requested by the government of the North West province to render support. The peat fire will be isolated by the digging of a trench after which a cut-off wall will be constructed within the peat to drown the fire with the remaining water within the peatland. Care will be taken to allow water to migrate downstream to maintain moisture levels in the wetland downstream of the peat- fire. Another peat fire is raging in the central part at the Rietvlei Nature Reserve near Pretoria. This is also a karst peatland and is one of sites that will be visited during the 2004 IMCG con- gress in Southern Africa (refer to 2nd Circular in IMCG Newslet- ter issue 2003/3, October 2003). The peat fire occurred in an area that has been on fire before due to a lowering in regional groundwater resources. This fire was a result of arson that originated outside the nature reserve. The fire is currently under control. A cut- off trench was dug around it and a feeder channel was dug by Working for Wetlands from the main channel to rewet this part of the wetland. Half of the water in this chan- nel consists of controlled discharge from a sewage treatment plant up- stream of the peatland. Two other peat fires are burning in the higher lying Steenkamsberg Plateau in the eastern part of the country. One is located in the Lakenvlei mire, which is also one of the sites that will be visited during the 2004 IMCG congress. This peat- fire was caused by a run-away veld (grassland) fire. The mire is in a good condition and the fire did not burn very deeply into the substrate. The other peat fire on this plateau occurred in an area that is afforested with exotic Pinus and _Eucalyptus_ plantations. These plantations have a dramatic negative impact on regional watert- ables. The result is that peatlands dry out and it is ironic that it are usually management fires that result in the combus- tion of degraded peatlands within these plantations. Severe peat fires occur from time to time on the eastern seabord of South Africa where extensive plantations are found. These fires do not only poses a health and safety risk to man and animal, result in the destruction of peatlands, but also pose an environmental disaster with the release of carbon gases into the atmosphere. More than anything else it is a reflection of a changing environment, not only on a global scale, but also on a local level - a monument of our failures as custodians of our environment. BOOK REVIEW: USE OF FIRE BY NATIVE AMERICANS From: Franklin J. Svoboda [franks@gpsinnovations.com] originally published in the Natural Areas Journal 24(1): 72-73. [Posted in BEN with permission] Stewart, Omer C., Henry T. Lewis, & M. Kat Anderson. [eds.] 2002. _Forgotten Fires - Native Americans and the Transient Wilderness_. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK. 364 p. ISBN 0-8061-3423- 2 [hard cover] Price: US$ 39.95 As I was reading the last chapter of _Forgotten Fires_, which describes the forests of California from 1500s to the early 20th century, the worst fires in California's history were still raging out of control. Stewart's book explains why current fires are far more intense than those of the 1500s. _Forgotten Fires_ is compelling to read - it should be mandatory reading in college for everyone whether they are in natural resources, finance, insurance, education, transportation, urban planning, land management, law, medicine or any other profes- sion. Public decision makers and land managers need to read this book to understand that the suppression of fire by control does not result in elimination of fire. The elimination of fuel results in the elimination of fire. Just as Aldo Leopold's _Sand County Almanac_ changed the way we looked at the land and Rachel Carson's _Silent Spring_ changed our perception of environmental pollution, _Forgotten Fires_ has the potential to change our perception of landscape wild fires. Stewart, the original manuscript author, an anthropologist by profession, developed a deep interest in the use of fire by the early Native Americans. Co-editors Lewis and Anderson write three chapters of introductory material. Lewis, an anthropologist, outlines the process of bringing the book to publication and critiques the anthropological aspects of the book. Anderson writes a chapter which brings the ecological importance of the book up to date. The first chapter cowritten by the two editors, documents the long and arduous path to publication (well over three decades) of over 750 page long original manuscript of which this book is the culmination. Along the way, Stewart faced criticism from his peers and colleagues and was marginalized as a credible anthropologist. Contrary to this criticism, his work is extensively researched and supported by 583 reference citations. Lewis and Anderson further add 296 citations for their 3 chapters. The introductory chapters by Lewis and Anderson illuminate the controversial nature of Stewart's central thesis Native Americans were not benign inhabitants of the landscape but, through the repeated and deliberate use of fire for 10,000 to 20,000 years, shaped the ecological communities of North America and their climax state. Although Stewart is an anthropologist, he repeatedly cites the work and disagrees with the conclusions of prominent ecologists, such as Clements and Weaver, who shaped the viewpoints of ecologists for decades to come regarding the prevalent climax communities. Stewart divides North America into three major groupings Eastern Woodlands, Prairies and Plains, and the Mountain West. Each grouping is further subdivided, in many instances down to specific states. The description of fire history and use for each local area proceeds from the earliest historical time period - around 1500 to mid-1900s, when Stewart completed the research for his paper. Stewart also describes how different tribal groups utilized fire. Virtually all of the Native American tribes, from the East Coast to the West Coast, utilized fire extensively and for many of the same reasons. Early anthropological thinking suggested that Native Americans only used fire for cooking and warmth and perhaps very isolated clearing around semipermanent residence areas. Stewart's work reveals an entirely different and more widespread, aggressive, planned and systematic use of fire. Fires were set to clear out underbrush to allow easier travel, make game more visible for harvest, drive game to concentrated points for easier harvest, increase the productivity and nutrient content of grasses as well berry and nut producing shrub and trees, control destructive and nuisance insects, reduce cover that would shield enemies, reduce fuel loads and lower the intensity of fiers, and maintain grasslands by using fire to control the spread of woodland. Contrary to the notion held by early settlers of the "ignorant savage", Native Americans were extraordinarily knowledgeable and sophisticated in the purpose and use of fire for managing vegetation and enhancing nutrients and productivity. It was only after pioneer settlement that widespread use of fire by Native Americans was curtailed. The plant community successional work completed by the early ecologists, according to Stewart's research, was not reflective of undisturbed landscapes, but was actually a "disturbed" landscape due to the elimination of the 10,000 to 20,000 year cycle of deliberately set fires. Sewart also looked at the evidence pertaining to lightning- indiced fire frequencies and whether lightning occurred fre- quently enough to explain plant community climaxes. In nearly all instances, the documented evidence of lightning frequency was not consistent with other evidence, suggesting more frequent fire occurrences. Also, fires occurred in some locations far more frequently and at the times of the year when lightning fires were not likely to occur. As with any work of this type, there are potential points of criticism. I have read extensively about fire history in Min- nesota and disagree with Stewart's statement that when "_brush accumulates fact the Cloquet and Hinckley [California] fires referred to were the result of vast accumulation of residual logging slash which created a catastrophe waiting to happen. Brush growth was a minor factor. A lesson to be learned from _Forgotten Fires_ is that unburned fuel, whether in California, New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, Montana, Wyoming, or any other location is a catastrophe waiting to happen. Fire management, as Native Americans discovered millennia ago, is a matter of fuel reduction, not fire suppres- sion. Most individuals reading this book will likely find some aspects to take issue with, but the book's fundamental message cannot be ignored. The use of fire by the early Native Americans had a significant impact on the entire ecological landscape of North America. Plant communities were in a subclimax state, maintained in that condition by the frequent and repeated use of fire for a variety of purposes by the Native Americans. The work of Stewart needs to be seriously examined and significant efforts at sub- sequent research need to be directed at better understanding the role of repeated fires in shaping the past and current develop- ment of the landscape. [Note: The same issue of the _Natural Areas Journal_ (February 2004) also brought a review of the 2002 book _Flammable Australia: The Fire Regimes and Biodiversity of a Continent_ edited by Bradstock, Ross A. et al., and published by the Cambridge University Press, NY.] ________________________________________________________________ Subscriptions: http://victoria.tc.ca/mailman/listinfo/ben-l Send submissions to aceska@victoria.tc.ca BEN is archived at http://www.ou.edu/cas/botany-micro/ben/ ________________________________________________________________ From aceska@victoria.tc.ca Tue May 25 20:14:44 2004 From: aceska@victoria.tc.ca (Adolf Ceska) Date: Tue, 25 May 2004 12:14:44 -0700 Subject: [BEN-L]BEN # 330 Message-ID: <000701c4428c$8e1fa630$744606cf@HPLAPTOP001> BBBBB EEEEEE NN N ISSN 1188-603X BB B EE NNN N BBBBB EEEEE NN N N BOTANICAL BB B EE NN NN ELECTRONIC BBBBB EEEEEE NN N NEWS No. 330 May 25, 2004 aceska@victoria.tc.ca Victoria, B.C. ----------------------------------------------------------- Dr. A. Ceska, P.O.Box 8546, Victoria, B.C. Canada V8W 3S2 ----------------------------------------------------------- STAN ROWE'S LEGACY TO GAIA From: Ted Mosquin, Lanark, Ontario K0G 1K0 [mosquin@superaje.com] Editor's Note: The following obituary is a slightly edited version of a letter to the editor of the quarterly journal Biodiversity 5(2), April-June 2004, published by the Tropical Conservancy, and currently in press. Information about the journal can be found at http://www.tc-biodiversity.org It is with great sadness to have to report that in March, ecologist, environmental ethicist and writer, Stan Rowe, 85, suffered a major stroke. He died peacefully on April 6th, 2004. His passing is an indescribable loss to his family and many friends across Canada and around the Earth. Stan was born on June 11, 1918 in the rural hamlet of Hardisty in southern Alberta. He had a happy childhood in a prairie landscape later described in one of his many writings (_Growing up in Granum_). He was educated at the Universities of Manitoba and Nebraska, and worked as a research forester with Forestry Canada for nineteen years, specializing in silviculture and ecological site classification. In 1967 he took up the post of Professor of Plant Ecology at the University of Saskatchewan where he is fondly remembered. Upon Stan's death, the University flew its flags at half mast for a week. Following retirement from academic work, Stan moved to New Denver, British Columbia. He had lived there in the 1940s when, as a conscientious objector, he was assigned the task of teaching the children of the interned Japanese. After retirement he devoted himself to writing in the emerging field of environmental ethics. He used his superb literary skills and extensive ecological and philosophical knowledge to create a unique body of literature about the deeper values of the living Earth, its ecosystems and organisms. Stan authored the widely used book _Forest Regions of Canada_ (1959, Queen's Printer, Ottawa). His collection of articles from the 1980s were published in _Home Place: Essays in Ecology_ (NeWest Books, Edmonton, 1990; reissued 2002). At the time of his death, a second book (to be titled _Earth Alive!_) was nearing completion. As well, he authored numerous articles, reviews, book chapters and was a celebrated public speaker on ecosystems and human ecology. Many of his inspirational ecological and philosophical essays, are posted at http://www.ecospherics.net In all his writings he strove to explain humanity's natural place in the larger reality. His writings are a living legacy to the Earth and to future generations of humans searching for answers to the philosophical meaning of life of the Earth and their (mainly unsensed) responsibilities and duties to restoring and maintaining a livable planet. His writings demonstrate the insightfulness and breadth of his thinking about the ecocentric (Earth-centered) valuation perspective. Among his celebrated writings, here are a few titles that reflect the breadth and depth of Stan's contributions: _What on Earth is Environment? Ecosphere Thinking_, _The Ecology of Cities_, _ Wilderness as Home Place_, _The Living Earth and Its Ethical Priority_, _An Earth-Based Ethic for Humanity_, _Ethical Ecosphere_, _Ecocentrism: The Chord that Harmonizes Humans and the Earth_, _This is your Mother Calling_, _Ethics and the Sea_ and many others. As well, Stan leaves behind a "quadrilogy" of creative and beautiful science films in video format, each 26 minutes in length, created by and available from Waterhen Film Productions, Regina. These are educational films for high school and adult audiences. In these, Stan narrates the story of the ecology of the Earth and describes the meaning of the ecocentric valuation perspective. Quote from program prologue: "_There is a place in the universe unlike any other....a modest blue-and-white planet circling a very lonely star. It's the only place we know of - with oceans of liquid water, and an atmosphere rich in oxygen. It's the only place we know of - which has created the magical essence called life. Of 20 million life forms, a species called man has grown so powerful that it threatens the creativity of the planet. That species is now searching for a new understanding of its relationship with Earth....its only HOME PLACE._" Stan was the co-author of _A Manifesto for Earth_ published in January/March, 2004 of the quarterly journal _Biodiversity_ published by The Tropical Conservancy. He had been extremely pleased to have seen the _Manifesto_ in print only two days before his stroke. The article was the culmination of a two-year project that I was fortunate to have worked on with him. At 3,100 words, it is unique among Charters, Proclamations and the like in that it describes a thoroughly ecocentric worldview [see http://www.ecospherics.net/pages/EarthManifesto.html ]. Several magazines/ journals have indicated their intent to reprint it. Beyond his formidable intellect, Stan was a kind, wise, cheerful and gently witty person... an inspiring teacher to students and his many friends. He is survived by his love Katherine, his two children Andrea with granddaughter Emily (Chelsea, Quebec), John with grandsons Christopher and Michael (North Carolina), and his former wife Julia (Saskatoon). Stan's presence among us will be sorely missed. His powerful legacy of important writings - emphasizing the importance of humanity's outer shared reality shall forever be with us - helping to guide people along a path toward greater international understanding, cooperation, stability and peace, all of which he recognized to be so dependent on the sustaining vitality and health of the Earth's Ecosphere. Among Stan's many quotable quotes, he made this observation about himself: "_Not a misanthrope, but a defender of Earth against the excesses of anthropes._" THE EXTIRPATED FLORA OF SPOKANE COUNTY, WASHINGTON: A DEPRESSING STUDY From: Curtis R. Bjork, Edgewood Blue, Box 131, Clearwater, BC V0E 1N0 Canada [cbjork@onewest.net] Introduction Much is written to document and conserve biotic diversity, but it is also useful to look retrospectively at human- caused losses of that diversity. Doing so allows us to understand the degree to which human activity is impacting native plant populations. Such documentation should influence decision- making in our use of the land and natural resources so as to avoid the continued loss of ever greater portions of our natural heritage. A long history of intensive human activity in Spokane County, Washington State, has greatly impacted many local ecosystems. The landscapes of the county are among the most botanically diverse in Washington. I quickly learned this 10 years ago when I started documenting the county's native flora. However, all too often, I have been unable to relocate populations represented by records from earlier botanists. Many of the most important early collection localities throughout the county are now indelibly altered by development, grazing and invasions of nonnative species. This note is intended to bring attention to the likely eventual loss of many more of the county's ecosystems and native species if development and other human activities aren't better planned. Study Area Spokane County encompasses substantial diversity of habitats and climate. The driest portions are dominated by various bunchgrasses and forbs, as well as _Artemisia rigida_, _Artemisia tridentata_ and _Rosa_ spp. _Pinus ponderosa_ savanna and forest covers large portions of the county at low to middle elevations. With increasing elevation, this gives way firstly to mixed _Pseudotsuga-Abies grandis_ forest, then wet mixed _Tsuga heterophylla-Thuja plicata_ forest and finally subalpine forest and grassland at the highest elevations. Wetlands are particularly numerous and diverse on exposed basalt bedrock in southwest portions of the county. Special habitats include deep loess of the Palouse Prairie, rich-soil forests on the eastern and northern margins of the Palouse, along rapids of the Spokane River, in old cedar groves and on sand slopes along the Spokane River. The extirpated flora of Spokane County Extirpated species are listed with complete label information. Location data are in quotation marks and are verbatim. These records represent the only known occurrences from the county. I would be very grateful to anyone for information on any extant populations of these plants in the county. _Acorus americanus_ (Raf.) Raf. "Newman Lake." 21 July, 1948. _Yocum s.n._ (WS). _Arnica chamissonis_ Less. var. _interior_ Maguire "Newman Lake." 9 July, 1916. _Suksdorf 18790_ (WS). _Astragalus adsurgens_ Pallas "Silver Lake." _Henderson 2359_. [Reported in St. John (1963), specimen not seen.] _Athysanus pusillus_ (Hook.) E. Greene "Rock Creek." 28 May, 1893. _Sandberg & Leiberg 96_ (WS). _Balsamorhiza rosea_ A. Nels & J.F. Macbr. "Dry ground, slopes, Seven Mile." 6 May, 1939. _F. C. Raney s.n._ (WS). _Botrychium simplex_ C. Hitchc. "Open pine woods along road connecting Deer Park with Highway 195, 0.7 mi west of 195." 21 June, 1945. _George Fischer s.n._ (WS). _Carex aquatilis_ (Wahlenb.) var. _dives_ (Holm) Standley "Latah Creek." 28 June, 1889. _Suksdorf 2961_ (WS). _Carex echinata_ Murray ssp. _echinata_ "On shore of Newman Lake." 9 July, 1916. _Suksdorf 8776_ (WS). _Carex interior_ L. Bailey "Spangle." 27 June, 1884. _Suksdorf 3017_ (WS). _Carex leptalea_ Wahl. "Dartford: wet wood at streamlet." 2 June, 1913. _G.W. Turesson 68_ (WS). _Chenopodium simplex_ (Torr.) Raf. "Hangman's Creek." May, 1889. _Suksdorf s.n._ (WS); "Lake near Spangle." 28 June & 31 July, 1889. _Suksdorf 1390_ (WS); "Clarks Springs, 8 mi. north of Spokane." 12 September, 1902 _F.O. Kreager567_ (WS). _Cirsium brevistylum_ Cronq. "Base of Mt. Carlton by stream." 25 July, 1902. _F.O. Kreager 307_ (WS). _Coreopsis aitkinsoniana_ Dougl. _ex_ Lindl. "Spokane River." 1892 _L.F. Henderson s.n._ (WS). _Corydalis aurea_ Willd. "Marshall Junction." 8 May, 1898. _Piper s.n._ (WS). _Dodecatheon jeffreyi _ Van Houtte "Elk City at head of Little Spokane River, Spokane County." 11 June 1937. _C.E. Ellis s.n._ (WS). _Dracocephalum parviflorum_ Nutt. "Medical Lake." _L.F. Henderson s.n._ [Reported in St. John (1963), specimen not seen.] _Epipactis gigantea_ Hook. "Spangle." _Suksdorf 240_. [Reported in St. John (1963), specimen not seen.] _Eriophorum gracile_ Koch "Swamp near Cheney." 27 May, 1889. _Suksdorf 4613_ (WS). _Eryngium articulatum_ Hook. "Stony edges of the Spokan River." _Geyer s.n._ (WS). [This is the type of the species. All other sites in Washington and Idaho appear to be extirpated.] _Festuca subuliflora_ Scribn. "Clarks Spring." _F.O. Kraeger 38_ (WS). _Hackelia floribunda_ (Lehm.) I.M. Johnston "Deep Creek, creek bed." 24 June, 1923. _T. Dange 51_ (WS). _Heteranthera dubia_ (Jacq.) MacMillan "Marshall Junction." _Suksdorf s.n._ [Reported in St. John (1963), specimen not seen.] _Hierochloe odorata_ (L.) Beauv. "Waikiki, in water." 4 May, 1913. _G.W. Turesson 14_ (WS). _Hutchinsia procumbens_ (L.) Desv. "Spokane County." _Piper 2944_ (WS). _Ipomopsis congesta_ (Hook.) V. Grant ssp. _congesta_ "Sandy bank of the Spokane River at mouth of the Little Spokane River." 21 May, 1937 _Lincoln Constance 1836_ (WS). _Linanthus liniflorus_ (Benth.) J.M Porter & L.A. Johnson "Clarks Springs." _F.O. Kreager s.n._ (WS) _Lonicera conjugialis_ Kell. "At a small lake southeast of Spangle." 10 August, 1889. _Suksdorf 9405_ (WS). _Lotus pinnatus_ Hook. "Spangle." 13 May, 1889. _Suksdorf s.n._ (WS) _Mimulus pulsiferae_ A. Gray "Moist Ground, Spokane." 18 August, 1892. _Sandberg 926_ (WS). _Mimulus suksdorfii_ A. Gray "Latah Creek." 13 June, 1889. _Suksdorf s.n._ (WS). _Minuartia pusilla_ (S. Watson) Mattf. "Liberty Lake." 2 May, 1916. _Suksdorf 8548_ (WS). _Muhlenbergia glomerata_ (Willd.) Trin. "Spangle." 29 June, 1889. _Suksdorf s.n. _(WS); "Meadows, Spokane County." 12 July, 1889. _Suksdorf 947_ (WS). _Muhlenbergia minutissima_ (Steud.) Swallen "Meadows, Spangle." May, 1889. _Suksdorf s.n._ (WS). _Najas flexilis_ (Willd.) Rost. & Schmidt "Philleo Lake." 14 August, 1889. _Suksdorf s.n._ (WS). _Orthocarpus luteus_ Nutt. "Meadows, Spokane region." _Lake & Hull 701_. [Reported in St. John (1963), specimen not seen.] _Petasites sagittatus_ (Banks) A. Gray "Marshall Junction." 2 July, 1896. _Piper s.n._ [Reported in St. John (1963), specimen not seen.] _Polemonium occidentale_ E. Greene [Reported from Cheney and Marshall Junction in St. John (1963) without collectors or dates.] _Polemonium pectinatum_ E. Greene "Spokane County." 17 June, 1889. _Suksdorf 1517_ (WS). _Pyrrocoma liatriformis_ E. Greene "Spangle." 3 July, 1884. _Suksdorf 11237_ (WS); "On prairies, Spokane County." 18 July, 1889. _Suksdorf 923_ (WS); "Prairies southwest of Spangle (near Philleo Lake)." 24 July, 1916. _Suksdorf 8913_ (WS). _Ranunculus gmelinii_ DC. "Muskrat Lake." 31 August, 1889. _Suksdorf 1965_ (WS). _Rhamnus alnifolia_ L'Her "Spangle." 15 May & 23 August, 1889. _Suksdorf 2453_ (WS); "In swamps, Marshall Junction." 2 July, 1896. _C.V. Piper 2250_ (WS). _Rhinanthus crista-galli_ L. "On low ground, Hangman Creek." 11 July, 1889. _Suksdorf s.n._ (WS). _Salix sitchensis_ Sanson "About Spokane." _Sandberg & Leiberg 72_ (WS). _Saxifraga ferruginea_ Grah. "Spokane County: Palouse Country." August, 1892. _Sandberg s.n._ (WS). _Schoenoplectus subterminalis_ (Torr.) Sojak "Philleo Lake." 14 August 1889. _Suksdorf 4621_ (WS). _Sparganium natans_ L. "Shallow ponds, Spokane County." 19 July, 1889. _Suksdorf 946_ (WS) [as _Sparganium minimum_]; "At a lake near Spangle." 28 June, 1889. _Suksdorf s.n._ (WS) [as _Sparganium minimum_]. _Sphenopholis intermedia_ (Rydb.) Rydb. "In meadows, Spokane County." 30 June, 1884. _Suksdorf s.n._ (WS); "Wet ground, Spokane County." 30 June, 1889. _Suksdorf 711_ (WS); "At the lake southwest of Spangle." 19 July, 1889. _Suksdorf s.n._ (WS). _Tauschia tenuissima_ (Geyer ex Hook.) Mathias & Constance "Latah Creek." 13 May, 1889. _Suksdorf 1211_ (WS); "Damp, low ground, bank of Latah Creek east of Spangle." 15 May & 27 June, 1916. _Suksdorf 8645_ (WS). _Thlaspi montanum_ L. "Along the Little Spokane River." June, 1918. _Mrs. Geo. Phillips s.n._ (WS). _Thysanocarpus curvipes_ Hook. "Spokane." 2 June, 1892. _Henderson s.n._ (WS). _Trifolium douglasii_ House "Low Prairies, Spokane County." 20 June & July, 1884. _Suksdorf 647_ (WS); "Hangman's Creek, Spokane." 2 June, 1892. _L.F. Henderson s.n._ (WS); "Latah Creek." 27 June, 1916. _Suksdorf 8683_ (WS). _Trisetum wolfii_ Vasey "Spangle." _Suksdorf 929_. [Reported in St. John (1963), specimen not seen.] _Vallisneria americana_ Michx. "Philleo Lake." _Piper s.n._ (WS). Discussion To date, I have documented over 1,100 native vascular plant taxa from Spokane County. Of these, 53 (4.8%) appear to be extirpated. Some of these extirpations represent the loss of these species from Washington (i.e., _Eryngium articulatum_, _Acorus americanus_, _Ipomopsis congesta_ and _Tauschia tenuissima_). The loss of some of these natives may be due to the ruderal, ephemeral nature of their populations (i.e., _Corydalis aurea_, _Dracocephalum parviflorum_ and _Hackelia floribunda_). However, most of the remainder either grew in habitats that have been eliminated throughout the county, or they required high-quality habitat and were poorly suited to the changes brought upon the landscapes where they once grew. Many of these extirpations are clearly due to complete loss of habitat. Examples include the conversion of grasslands to agriculture (in the case of _Saxifraga ferruginea_) and to the development and the spread of urban and suburban Spokane (i.e., _Festuca subuliflora_, _Hierochloe odorata_, _Mimulus pulsiferae_, _Minuartia pusilla_, _Orthocarpus luteus_, _Salix sitchensis_, _Thlaspi montanum_ and _Thysanocarpus curvipes_). Many of the extirpated wetland species have probably lost habitat to the spread of highly invasive forms of _Phalaris arundinacea_, which has spread as nearly solid stands around most wetlands. This includes Newman Lake where it likely caused the loss of _Acorus americanus_, _Arnica chamissonis_ and _Carex echinata_, and Philleo Lake where _Najas flexilis_, _Schoenoplectus subterminalis_ and _Vaillisneria americana_ once grew. Other weeds clearly have resulted in the loss of native plant populations, and are likely to have contributed to many of the extirpations listed here. _Bromus tectorum_, _Centaurea_ spp., _Elymus repens_, _Hypericum perforatum_ and _Sisymbrium altissimum_ are among the most aggressive dryland weeds in the county, especially in areas under heavy grazing pressure. These weeds have also been extremely problematic in areas having sandy soils, especially in the valley of the Spokane River. Dryland plants that might have been displaced by weeds include _Astragalus adsurgens_, _Athysanus pusillus_, _Botrychium simplex_, _Balsamorhiza rosea_ and _Linanthus liniflorus_. Certain localities in the county appear to have been the sites of particularly large numbers of extirpations. Foremost among these is the Spangle/Waverly/Latah Creek area. This was home to relatives of Wilhelm Suksdorf, one of the greatest pioneer botanists of the West, and it served as one of his favorite collecting localities over several years. While eighteen documented extirpations involved populations at this site, several very rare species continue to grow in the few natural areas in the vicinity. These sites, including one of the last remaining lowland camas meadows in Washington, are a very high conservation priority. The Spangle site is on the eastern margins of the Channeled Scablands, a unique landscape of shallow, rocky soils and exposed bedrock that was scoured by immense glacial floods roughly 15,000-12,000 years BP (Bretz, 1969). The Scablands are, in general, a region of great biological diversity: nearly half of the 1,100 native taxa of Spokane County have been recorded within the channels of these floods. Large portions of the Spokane County Scablands have been under heavy grazing use, resulting in the displacement of native plants by nonnative invasives, and other portions are currently being subdivided. Any natural areas remaining in the Scablands should be considered for preserve status and livestock should be removed permanently. Conservation measures should be taken soon in the Scabland as well as in other high-quality habitats in the county, otherwise this extirpated flora is likely to continually grow. References Bretz, J. H. 1969. The Lake Missoula Floods and the Channeled Scabland. _J. of Geol_. 77: 505-543. St. John, H. 1963. _Flora of southeastern Washington and of adjacent Idaho_. Outdoor Pictures, Escondito, Calif., U.S.A. _PHYSOSTEGIA LEDINGHAMII_ (LAMIACEAE): FLORAL LENGTH VARIATION IN THE TYPE POPULATION, EPONYMY AND ISOTYPES From: April Feswick [afeswick@yahoo.ca] & Paul Catling [catlingp@agr.gc.ca] While processing DAO herbarium backlog material collected in the 1950s, we came across a set of dried specimens with printed labels intended for distribution as examples of the type collection of _Physostegia virginiana_ var. _ledinghamii_ Boivin in _Nat. Canad_. 93: 574. 1966. HOLOTYPE: Saskatchewan, Swift Current District, Cabri, 15 milles au nord, plati©re sablonneuse de la Saskatchewan du Sud, 28 juillet 1952, _Bernard Boivin and J.F. Alex 9978_ (DAO). These exsiccata included 185 specimens (all isotypes). They are of interest as a population sample that can be analyzed with regard to the distinctiveness of the taxon. _Physostegia virginiana_ var. _ledinghamii_ was elevated to species rank by Cantino in 1981. It is thought to be a tetraploid derivative of a hybrid between _P. parviflora_ and _P. virginiana_. The key characteristics that separate all three taxa were presented by Cantino (1981) on the basis of sample sizes of at least 30 specimens, from a wide distribution ranging from Manitoba, western Ontario, the Dakotas, Minnesota and northern Wisconsin. Some of the characters suggested are qualitative and difficult to apply. Other characters overlap between _P. ledinghamii_ and either one of the putative parents. The most useful distinguishing characteristic of the hybrid noted by Cantino was the length of the longest nonglandular trichome on the raceme axis but this is difficult to measure. Floral length is useful for distinguishing _P. parviflora_ from _P. ledinghamii_ but the distinction between _P. ledinghamii_ and _P. virginiana_ is more difficult. Based on Cantino's key and descriptions, the number of leafy nodes below the inflorescence appears to be the most useful character. _Physostegia virginiana_ var. _virginiana_ has 19-33 leafy nodes below the inflorescence whereas both _P. ledinghamii_ and _P. parviflora_ have 9-16. There is no overlap in this character but regardless of how useful it is, the separation of _P. virginiana_ and _P. ledinghamii_ is not likely to be problematic because they appear not to overlap geographically, _P. ledinghamii_ being more western and northern (Cantino, 1981). Thus, based on the recent monographic work, the major identification problem exists in separating _P. ledinghamii_ from _P. parviflora_. The latter has flowers 9 - 16 mm long while _P. ledinghamii_ has flowers 14 - 23 mm long (Cantino, 1981). Since the distinction of _Physostegia ledinghamii_ and _P. parviflora_ is based on only about 30 specimens of _P. ledinghamii_, each being a single plant from a single population, the opportunity to examine floral length in a large population sample represented by the type collection provides useful additional information on variation, and the separation of the two taxa. Floral length was measured in each of 185 plants from an exsiccata collection. The longest intact flower between the third and seventh from the top was measured, and the mean, standard deviation and standard error were calculated in order to determine variability in floral length. The mean floral length in the sample was 18.3mm +/- 1.09 (S.D.) and +/- 0.08 (S.E.). The minimum floral length recorded was 15 mm, and the maximum floral length was 21 mm. When compared to Cantino's figure 2 (1981), _Physostegia ledinghamii_ in the type collection had a narrower range of variation. In our large plant collection there were 31 specimens (17 %) between 15 and 17 mm and 154 specimens (83 %) from 18 to 21 mm. Cantino found a range of flower length from 14-23 mm, with only 7 specimens (25 %) between 14 and 17 mm, 15 specimens (54 %) from 18-20 mm, and 6 specimens (21 %) from 21-23 mm. Our population mean and range is well within the limits of total _P. ledinghamii_ variation from a wide geographic range. In contrast, _P. parviflora_ has a more narrow floral length range (12-16mm), with a peak at 14mm. Thus when the floral length in the type population sample is compared to the floral length of _P. parviflora_, a clear bimodal pattern results, supporting the separation of _P. ledinghamii_. As a result of vegetative reproduction by rhizomes all plants in a population may be identical (Cantino, 1982). Furthermore plants may spread by rhizome fragments which could result in widely separate populations being identical. However, the flowers of _Physostegia_ taxa are extensively visited by insects and generally produce seed as a result of both self and cross pollination. Thus populations are not necessarily expected to be genetically uniform. Regardless of the extent to which the variation in the type collection is phenotypic or genotypic, the recognition of _P. ledinghamii_ as a distinct taxon is supported. Boivin did not explain his choice of the name "_ledinghamii_" in the original description. The epithet commemorates G. F. Ledingham (b. 1917), plant taxonomist and phytogeographer working mainly in Saskatchewan. Ledingham established the University of Regina's herbarium in 1945 which is now called the G.F. Ledingham Herbarium. During the time he served as curator, he collected over 50,000 specimens of vascular plants, as well as mosses and lichens and provided very extensive information on the flora of the province. He was elected as an honourary member of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists Club, and has received awards from Parks Canada, Environment Canada and the Canadian Nature Federation. As well, he was the recipient of a Canada 125 Commemorative Medal, the Saskatchewan Order of Merit, and the Harkin Conservation Award. Most of these awards related to his work involving the protection of natural areas. Ledingham collected many of the plants that became a basis for Boivin's work on the plants of the prairie provinces. For more information on Boivin see Cayouette and Cody (1989). Isotypes of _Physostegia ledinghamii_ are available on exchange from DAO - contact the collections manager: migrowg@agr.gc.ca. References Cantino, P.D. 1982. A monograph of the genus _Physostegia_ (Labiatae) [New Texas]. _Contributions from the Gray Herbarium (Harvard University)_ 211:1-105. Cantino, P.D. 1981. Change of status for _Physostegia virginiana_ var. _ledinghamii_ (Labiatae) and evidence for a hybrid origin. _Rhodora_ 83 (833): 111-118. Cayouette, J. & W.J. Cody. 1989. Bernard Boivin (1916-1985). _Quatre-temps_ 13(3): 2-11. BOOK REVIEWS AND A BOOK NOTICE FROM THE FEBRUARY 2004 ISSUE OF _TAXON_ From: Rudi Schmid [schmid@socrates.Berkeley.edu] Emmons, Jean (ill.). 1997. _Northwest woodland wildflowers_. Good Nature Publishing Co., Seattle. http://www.goodnaturepublishing.com Lee, Michael (ill.). 1999. _Eastern deciduous trees. 2000. Eastern native conifers_. 1998. _Garden herbs_. 2000. _Native grasses of California_. 1997. _Native oaks of California_. 1996. _Northwest native broadleaved trees_. 1995. _Northwest native conifers_. 1997. _Subtropical_ [alien] _trees of California_. Ibid. _Each_: ill. col., no ISBN; 61x91.5 cm, $16.99 (unlaminated), $30.00 (laminated), exc. "eastern" and "herbs" posters 46x61 cm, $9.99 (unlaminated), $20.00 (laminated) (discounts avail. to educators). It is gratifying to see the venerable wall-chart phenomenon [see R. Schmid, Wall charts (Wandtafeln)--remembrance of things past, _Taxon_ 39: 471-472, 1990] still alive and well at Good Nature Publishing. These attractively and very well done wall charts, or "posters" as the publisher prefers to call them, treat, in titular order, 34, 28, 20, 32, 22, 20, 32, 32, and 34 taxa. Each taxon has a common and Latin name and a representation of habit and vegetative and reproductive features. All charts except the grass one have the taxa linked by number to a central image showing habits. The California oaks and grasses have distribution maps. The chart for the curiously titled _Subtropical trees of California_ treats strictly alien taxa. Lee's charts are illustrated with color pencil, Emmons's with watercolor, both printed on high-quality recycled paper. The laminated charts have two 7-mm grommets for hanging (also helpful would be two more grommets at the lower corners to pin flat the charts). There are also charts on various critters (see the website). Wall charts have been and always will be, even in the Internet age, truly excellent teaching aids. -- Rudolf Schmid, UC ---------- Munz, Philip A. (Alexander). May 2003. _Introduction to California mountain wildflowers_. Rev. ed. Ed. by Phyllis M. Faber & Dianne Lake. Ibid. (series: _Idem_, 68). xi, [i], 247, [2] pp., ill. (B&W, col.), ep. scale, ISBN 0-520-23635-1 (HB), $39.95, ISBN 0-520-23637-8 (PB), $16.95. [Ed. 1 1963, as _California mountain wildflowers_, [[v]], 122 pp., w/ 96 col. photos, 181 B&W line drawings, 2 B&W maps.] -- _Contents:_ intro; 11-p. intro to montane pl. comms. (by R. Ornduff); maps; tax. pt.; glossary; index; bionotes; no biblio. With 187 col. photos, 154 B&W line drawings, 1 col., 1 B&W map. Munz, Philip A. (Alexander). May 2003. _Introduction to shore wildflowers of California, Oregon, and Washington_. Rev. ed. Ed. by Phyllis M. Faber & Dianne Lake. Ibid. (series: Idem, 67). xi, [i], 234, [1] pp., ill. (B&W, col.), ep. scale, ISBN 0-520-23638-6 (HB), $39.95, ISBN 0-520-23639- 4 (PB), $16.95. [Ed. 1 1964, as _Shore wildflowers of California, Oregon, and Washington_, [[v]], 122 pp., w/ 96 col. photos, 178 B&W line drawings, 1 B&W map.] -- Contents: intro; 13-p. intro to coastal pl. comms. (by R. Ornduff); map; tax. pt.; glossary; index; bionotes; no biblio. With 181 col. photos, 180 B&W line drawings, 1 B&W map. Philip A. Munz's (1892-1974) A California flora appeared in 1959, with offshoots in 1961, 1962, 1963, and 1964 as four popular works treating, respectively, spring, desert, mountain, and shore wildflowers. In the four decades since then the University of California Press has shamelessly milked this cash cow, repeatedly reissuing the four guides with new covers and at increased prices (initially $1.95, finally $12.95), with nary a nomenclatural update or replacement of the worst of the exceptionally poor vintage 1950s or early 1960s color photos. Finally, we have two of the four books, on mountain (California) and shore (Pacific Coast) wildflowers, in thorough revisions by Phyllis M. Faber & Dianne Lake, with new editions of the spring and desert wildflower books promised for 2004. All four books have or will have informative introductions by Robert Ornduff (1932-2000) on the relevant plant communities. The color photography is substantially upgraded, with more photos (see details in the heading comparing the new and old editions), but Jeanne R. Janish's excellent drawings are retained. The mountain and shore books treat, respectively, 257 and 268 taxa of pteridophytes and angiosperms, plus also conifers in the latter book. These welcome updates are superb and will receive broad and extended use. -- Rudolf Schmid, UC ---------- Henry, J. David. 2002. _Canada's boreal forest_. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington (http://www.si.edu/sipress ) (series: _Smithsonian natural history series_, unnum.). xvi, 176 pp., [16] pp. pls. (col.), text ill. (B&W), B&W ep. maps, ISBN 1-58834-057-0 (HB), $34.95. -- _Contents:_ note by series ed. J. Kricher; 15 chaps. w/ mostly catchy titles; places to visit; index. No biblio. BOOK REVIEWS: FIELD GUIDES TO PACIFIC NORTH AMERICAN SEAWEEDS - FROM THE FEBRUARY 2004 ISSUE OF _TAXON_ From: Paul C. Silva, UC Berkeley [psilva@berkeley.edu] Druehl, Louis D. 2000 (publ. 2001). _Pacific seaweeds: A guide to common seaweeds of the West Coast_. Harbour Publishing, Madeira Park (http://www.harbourpublishing.com ). 190 pp., ill. (some col.), ISBN 1-55017-240-9 (PB), US$17.95. -- _Contents:_ intro; ID; col. guide; tax. pt.; ecol.; conserv.; use, cult.; cooking; glossary; biblio.; list spp.; index; ID guide. With 78 col. photos. Mondragon, Jennifer & Mondragon, Jeff. 12 May 2003. _Seaweeds of the Pacific Coast: Common marine algae from Alaska to Baja California_. Sea Challengers, 4 Sommerset Rise, Monterey, CA 93940, USA. 97 pp., errata slip, ill. (most col.), ISBN 0- 930118-29-4 (PB), $21.95. -- _Contents:_ intro; struc.; repro.; uses; habitats; coll.; photo.; tax. algae; key; tax. pt.; cooking; glossary; biblio.; index. Two recently published field guides to Pacific North American seaweeds, although designed primarily to provide aids to identification by beachcombers, should intrigue phycologists who may be curious about what aspects of their esoteric profession are considered worthy of being shared with the general public. Druehl's _Pacific seaweeds:_ This little book bears the distinctive stamp of someone who discovered seaweeds fortuitously, fell madly in love with them, and is living joyfully in their midst. Druehl's writing is enthusiastic, humorous, and replete with interesting personal anecdotes, which conventional editors would smugly blue-pencil. Druehl has dedicated this guide to Robert Francis Scagel, his major professor at the University of British Columbia and the author of an earlier guide (_Guide to common seaweeds of British Columbia_, 1967, series: _British Columbia Provincial Museum handbook_, no. 27). Whereas Scagel's guide covered only British Columbia, Druehl has extended the range southward to Point Conception, California. He treats 134 species, including two seagrasses, which represent about one-fifth of the marine flora of this cold-temperate region. To facilitate identification of these species, they are first categorized by color (green, brown, and red) and then grouped on the basis of the form of the plant. For example, green cylinders would lead the reader to _Enteromorpha_, brown cylinders to _Scytosiphon_, _Melanosiphon_, _Analipus_, _Saundersella_, and _Desmarestia_ (pro parte), and red cylinders to _Halosaccion_ and _Nemalion_. Within each form-group the genera and species are differentiated by line drawings (many drawn by Ernani G. Me¤ez for Scagel's 1967 guide), brief descriptions using relatively simple terms, and habitat notes. Most genera are represented by color photos, which are helpful but not always convincing. There are no dichotomous keys except for the species of _Laminaria_ (a genus close to Druehl's heart). Most generic names are accompanied by an alleged common name, but in the absence of widely accepted common names for the majority of seaweeds, Druehl has resorted to invention. _Ulothrix_, a filamentous green alga identifiable only by microscopic examination, will be pleasantly surprised to learn that it is commonly known as "Mermaid's tresses". There is much more to Druehl's guide than aids to identification. There are brief sections, comprising 13 pages, on the definition of seaweeds, their structure and reproduction, life histories, the taxonomic hierarchy, beach etiquette and safety, and how to make herbarium specimens. More extensive accounts, comprising 29 pages, are devoted to seaweed ecology (including horizontal and vertical distribution, communities, productivity, and conservation) and seaweed utilization and cultivation. Finally, there are seven pages of seaweed recipes. Clearly, Druehl has poured his heart and soul into this little but disproportionately informative book. The Mondragons's Seaweeds of the Pacific Coast: Lagging several years behind other geographic areas, the Pacific coast of North America, from Alaska to Baja California, at last has a full- color photographic manual of its common seaweeds. Springing from the excellent intertidal and subtidal photography of Jeff Mondragon, this useful book was crafted by his wife Jennifer. The introductory material is concise, interesting, and helpful. It covers the morphology, life histories, and habitats of seaweeds as well as their taxonomy, nomenclature, and phylogeny. Brief sections are devoted to the collecting, photographing, and use of seaweeds. For culinary adventurers, there are four pages of seaweed recipes. The "Quick-Key" is in fact a classification based on color and somatic type (filament, crust, blade, etc.) and serves as a key to species only when a particular category has only one member. A very useful feature of the key is the graphic indication of the north-south range for each species, which can differentiate species in the same category provided that the specimen in hand was not collected in an area of overlap. In the taxonomic portion of the book each of 114 species is illustrated by an _in situ_ colored photo accompanied by a brief description using semi-popular vocabulary. Remarks on field characters, morphology, taxonomy, and nomenclature are given when appropriate. For 16 genera, a photo and description is given without naming a particular species. The selection of seaweeds is skewed towards the north. Among various seaweeds common in southern California that could have been included are _Dictyopteris undulata_, _Pachydictyon coriaceum_, _Halidrys dioica_, _Sargassum agardhii_, _Gracilaria cunninghamii_, _G. papenfussii_ (in fact a _Gracilariopsis_), _Leptocladia binghamiae_, _Chondria acrorhizophora_, _C. nidifica_, and _Laurencia subopposita_. While the species depicted in most photos will be recognizable to the specialist, the novice may find it difficult to match specimens with those photos (fortunately few) that have insufficient contrast between specimen and background or in which the thallus is too congested to clearly show characteristic branching patterns. Speaking in general terms, and not with reference solely to the book at hand, I believe that only the very best of photos would obviate the need for accompanying line drawings, such as have been provided by D.S. Littler & M.M. Littler in their _Caribbean reef plants_ (2000). Considering that the photos were taken _in situ_, they are exceptionally fine. I particularly like the picture of _Pelagophycus porra_ (elk kelp), in which Jennifer Mondragon serves as a scale by which to measure the prodigious size of the pneumatocyst. In view of the obsolescence of the standard reference book for Pacific coast seaweeds (I.A. Abbott & G.J. Hollenberg, _Marine algae of California_, 1976), the updated names and geographic ranges in the present book are especially important. They have been gleaned from the unpublished book, _A guide to the seaweeds of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and northern California_, by T.C. DeCew, P.C. Silva & R.A. Rasmussen. All of the seaweeds seem to be correctly identified with the exception of the alga labeled _Laminaria ephemera_, which is clearly _L. setchellii_, and the alga labeled _Bossiella_ sp., which is a form of _Calliarthron tuberculosum_. As editor and adviser, Professor Rasmussen (Humboldt State University, Arcata, California) has imparted a scholarly tone to this beautifully formatted book, which serves as a very impor tant interim reference until such a time as _Marine algae of California_ may be revised or rewritten. BOOK REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES FROM THE MAY 2004 ISSUE OF _TAXON_ From: Rudi Schmid [schmid@socrates.Berkeley.edu] Hill, Susan & Narizny, Susan (comp.). Feb. 2004. _The plant locator: Western region_ [cover sub-subtitle: _More than 50,000 plants and where to find them_]. [3rd ed.] Timber Press, Portland (http://www.timberpress.com ), and Black- Eyed Susans Press, Portland (http://www.blackeyedsusanspress.com ). 745, [7] pp., ill., ep. symbols, ISBN 0-88192-633-7 (PB), $19.95. [Eds. 1-2 1999, 2000.] -- _Contents:_ foreword by R.G. Turner, Jr.; use of book; nomen. notes; pl. list; info nurseries; appendix (biblio.; indices); bionotes. An obvious compilatory labor of love, the 547-page heart of the book on over 50,000 alphabetically arranged taxa serves as a nomenclator for everyone and as a plant locator for gardeners in British Columbia and eleven western states. Coded entries for 336 nurseries (I detect an Oregonian bias) suggest sources for popular and exotic species and cultivars. A 65-page section gives up to 17 parameters for 336 nurseries, including website URLs and email addresses. Some nurseries supplied plant lists for the database, whereas others did or could not, for instance, respectively, 43 and 9 nurseries for California. This is a good source to check for new or unusual cultivars, but there will always be omissions, especially for presumably recent cultivars. For instance, "_Magnolia_ 'Lemon Mist'" purchased locally by my girlfriend does not appear, and Googling also is no help here. This book also has a valuable 19-page introductory section on "nomenclatural notes" plus a useful 86-page index of nearly 9000 entries that equates common to Latin names. A CD-ROM version probably would have been even more worthwhile than the printed version. -- Rudolf Schmid, UC ----------- Lahring, Heinjo. Oct. 2003. _Water and wetland plants of the prairie provinces_ [cover subtitle: _A field guide for Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and the northern United States_]. Canadian Plains Research Center, Regina (www.cprc.uregina.ca). x, 326 pp., ill. (B&W, col.), B&W ep. ill. glossary, ISBN 0-88977-162-6 (PB), Can$34.95. -- _Contents:_ intro (biogeogr.; hardiness zones; wetland class.; pl. categories; ecol.; pl. class., nomen.); tax. pt.; glossary; biblio.; indices. In dealing with aquatic and wetland plants one expects to get one's feet muddy and even wet. This nifty guidebook will compensate for those annoyances. It deals with over 400 species (4 pteridophytes are featured, 5 others incidentally mentioned) and illustrates them with over 300 simple but effective line drawings and over 300 mostly good-quality color photos. Five parts of the book are color coded for pteridophytes, graminoids, non- graminoid monocotyledons, shrubs, and dicotyledonous herbs. Each featured taxon has information for names, structure, habitat and distribution (including outside Canada), ecology and use ("special features"), and related species. There is one key to families and four keys to genera (_Potamogeton_, _Eriophorum_, _Scirpus_, _Myriophyllum_). The 19-page introduction (see Contents) gives a useful overview. This handy paperback has rounded corners and is reasonably sized (213x140 mm) but would have benefited from a plasticized cover. Missing from the title page is the cover subtitle noting this work is useful in the prairie states adjacent to the Canadian prairie provinces. -- Rudolf Schmid, UC ---------- Benvie, Sam. 2002. _The encyclopedia of North American trees_. Firefly Books, Buffalo (http://www.fireflybooks.com ). 304 pp., ill. (most col.), 265x191 mm, ISBN 1-55297-641-6 (PB), $24.95. -- _Contents:_ intro; use of book; 254-p. descr. pt.; crown shapes of trees; hardiness zones; glossary; addresses; biblio.; index. On 278 native spp. alpha. arr. by Lat. name; w/ 350 col. photos. Elias, Scott A. 2002. _Rocky Mountains_. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington (www.si.edu/sipress) (series: _Smithsonian natural history series_, unnum.). xi, 164 pp., [16] pp. pls. (col.), text ill. (B&W), B&W ep. maps, ISBN 1- 58834-042-2 (HB), $34.95. -- Contents: ed. note; backbone N. Amer.; mt. building; fossils; pls.; animals; first peoples; written hist.; epilog; index. Chap. biblios. Trehane, Jennifer. Mar. 2004. _Blueberries, cranberries and other vacciniums_. Timber Press, Portland (www.timberpress.com) (series: _Royal Horticultural Society plant collector guide_, unnum.). 256 pp., [16] pp. pls. (col.), text unill., ISBN 0-88192-615-9 (HB), $29.95. -- _Contents:_ foreword by J. Gardiner; 9 chaps. in 4 topic areas: (a) _Vaccinium_; (b) cranberries, lingonberries: idem; (c) blueberries (Bs): "wild," lowbush Bs N. Amer.; n. high- bush Bs; s. highbush, half-high Bs, "huckleberries"; (d) vacciniums as gard. pls.: growing mainly for fr.; idem ornament; 31-p. descr. list 53 spp., hybrids; appendix (chart Lat., common names 27 taxa); metric-conversion chart; biblio.; index. On 50 spp. _Vaccinium_. 3 hybrids, many cultivars; w/ 66 col. photos. RE: USE OF FIRE BY NATIVE AMERICANS [BEN # 329] From: W.A. Weber [Bill.Weber@colorado.edu] I was so pleased to see the review of Omer Stewart's book on aboriginal fire. I looked at his manuscript years ago when he was trying to publish it, and I really thought it deserved publication. It is a horrible example of how ones colleagues can suppress serious research and destroy the writer's reputation. There is a recent biography of Omer (_Cannibalism Is an Acquired Taste ._ by Carol L. Howell - see below), and it deserves reading. Years ago, when the Civil Rights fight was going on, we had a meeting of the Southwestern Association of Museums at Boulder, and Omer proposed that the group pass a resolution that would have bound the museum group to abandon the principles of segregated drinking fountains and rest rooms; he was voted down by the whole Texas-Oklahoma bloc. He also succeeded in forcing a local barber on University Hill to cease to denying haircuts for blacks "_because their wiry hair ruined his scissors._" He was unfortunately so caught up with civil rights that it affected his scientific judgment sometimes. I happened to get hold of a few of Barry Fell's books on the ancient visits of Europeans to America, and I became quite supportive of his thesis (I still am), and his right to promulgate it whether it was flawed or not. I was walking by the museum building and caught up with Omer and asked him what his opinion of Fell's work was, and he brushed it off, saying, "_Oh, him. He's a racist._" He also was a good administrator. The anthropology department developed under Omer's headship, because he tried his best to advance the faculty. Just thought you'd like to know. NOTE: BIOGRAPHY OF OMER C. STEWART MENTIONED BY BILL WEBER Howell, Carol L. (1998): _Cannibalism Is an Acquired Taste and Other Notes From Conversations With Anthropologist O.C. Stewart_. University Press of Colorado, Boulder, CO. 219 p. ISBN: 0-87081-474-5 [hard cover] Price: US$29.95 Omer Stewart is most noted for his career-long study of the Peyote religion. His mentor, A.L. Kroeber, instilled in him an abiding respect for cultural variation. Applying this fundamental principle to his work in the 1930s, Omer was surprised to find himself at odds with many notable colleagues. With characteristic self-confidence, he was undeterred in his effort to document the religion, defend its practice, and push open the door to applied anthropology. In _Cannibalism Is an Acquired Taste_, Carol L. Howell weaves together taped interviews with Stewart; excerpts from his letters, notes, and papers; and recollections of family members and others. The result is a fascinating sketch not only of Omer Stewart as a person but also of his contributions to the field of anthropology and the academic and social milieu in which he participated. A must for anthropologists and anyone interested in the art of biography. ________________________________________________________________ Subscriptions: http://victoria.tc.ca/mailman/listinfo/ben-l Send submissions to aceska@victoria.tc.ca BEN is archived at http://www.ou.edu/cas/botany-micro/ben/ ________________________________________________________________